Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
229 listings
    • 34,087 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Oxnard, CA / 2,390 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C51G3B14709
    Stock: 26487050
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 30,721 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 1,309 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU3C56G2B62886
    Stock: 27418906
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 56,054 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in San Antonio, TX / 1,479 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (26 City/35 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWZP3C57ET707286
    Stock: 2003735107
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-20-2025

  • New Listing
    • 62,715 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Inglewood, CA / 2,357 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP7C55G2A42821
    Stock: 26740700
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 73,462 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 1,266 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM7C53ET926110
    Stock: 2003779578
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-30-2025

  • New Listing
    • 78,099 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NC to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Winston Salem, NC / 381 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C50G3B15575
    Stock: 27097566
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 90,072 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Sacramento, CA / 2,407 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM7C56ET970022
    Stock: 2003726026
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-22-2025

    • 92,712 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Tampa, FL / 934 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C53G2D15663
    Stock: 2003727268
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-13-2025

  • New Listing
    • 78,271 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from VA to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Midlothian, VA / 217 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU1C50G2E17083
    Stock: 26390546
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 60,693 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 29 City / 40 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Buena Park, CA / 2,340 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    33 Combined MPG (29 City/40 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM5C56ET934917
    Stock: 26846298
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 68,843 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from MS to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Jackson, MS / 963 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C51G3B14175
    Stock: 26564499
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 68,189 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TN to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Madison, TN / 647 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM7C5XET970430
    Stock: 26845230
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 53,915 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from IL to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Algonquin, IL / 657 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM7C53ET926169
    Stock: 27267154
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 66,609 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from MD to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Gaithersburg, MD / 108 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU3C54G2B67214
    Stock: 26827152
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 69,957 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NV to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Reno, NV / 2,301 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C59GT739761
    Stock: 27044998
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Photos not available
    $8,888
    fair price
    $425 above market
    • 108,680 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 34 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • Imports Auto Sales (100 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Trip Computer
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    Close

    Located in Paterson, NJ / 100 miles away from Reading, PA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXM7C5XET970685
    Stock: 970685
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 12-13-2024

    • 103,952 miles
    • Insurance loss reported, 3 owners, personal use
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • EZ Fixer Cars (71 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Wrightstown, NJ / 71 miles away from Reading, PA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU1C56G2D08336
    Stock: 8336
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 10-02-2024

  • New Listing
    • 53,850 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from AL to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Mobile, AL / 957 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXP5C53G3B76595
    Stock: 27100418
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 94,267 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Las Vegas, NV / 2,132 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU1C51G2D12472
    Stock: 2003671797
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-01-2025

    • 57,500 miles
    • 3 accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to PA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Irving, TX / 1,271 miles away from Reading, PA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU1C58G2D10993
    Stock: 27073400
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 59,066 miles
    • 28 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    • Auto Climate Control
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 1,222 miles away from Reading, PA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMWXU1C57G2E17131
    Stock: 2003801615
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-10-2025

Showing 64 - 84 out of 229 listings

Consumer Reviews for the MINI Cooper

Read recent reviews for the MINI Cooper
Overall Consumer Rating
4.1 out of 5 stars37 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 37 reviews
  • 5 star
    (51%)
  • 4 star
    (24%)
  • 3 star
    (14%)
  • 2 star
    (5%)
  • 1 star
    (5%)
4 out of 5 stars

BMW doesn't honor its warranty

Dr. Henry Mullaney, 12/19/2015
2015 MINI Cooper John Cooper Works 2dr Hatchback (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 6M)
Mini Cooper provides a 3 year warranty on the car, but BMW refuses to honor it. BMW makes the engine, clutch, and transmission for Mini Cooper. To simplify logistics, they use the same clutch on all their Mini drive chains. As an engineer, I know that the first rule for choosing a clutch for a car is that it should be able to handle the torque produced by the engine. The Mini clutch … was designed for the standard 140 HP Mini engine. The JCW comes with 208 HP. To make matters worse, the Mini clutch is backwards from standard clutches. During shifting, the clutch disengages the transmission and not the engine. That means that the thrust bearing continues to rotate while handling a lot of load. The standard half inch steel bearing cannot hold up to the 208 HP engine. There is an easy fix to this problem which engineers know about. You replace the half inch steel bearing with a three quarter inch ceramic bearing made to handle the horsepower. To save less that $10 per car, BMW decided not to do this. Therefore their clutches wear out. The last time my clutch failed, about 2 years after purchase with a three year warranty, BMW refused to pay for my warranty repair, and I am out about $2000. I asked my dealer to use a heavy duty clutch which I would buy during this last repair. But their contract with Mini Cooper doesn't allow them to use any parts but BMW parts. BMW tells me that I do not know how to drive a clutched car. I have driven Saabs with standard transmissions and clutches for over 20 years and have never had a clutch failure. I currently drive a 1999 Saab 9-3 convertible with 150,000 miles on it, with the original clutch still working fine.
Report abuse

Used 2016 MINI Cooper in Reading, PA Values

Estimated values
2016 MINI Cooper 2dr Hatchback (1.5L 3cyl Turbo 6A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$7,001$10,558$13,095
Clean$6,732$10,123$12,521
Average$6,282$9,397$11,563
Rough$5,697$8,454$10,318

The average list price of a used 2016 MINI Cooper in Reading, Pennsylvania is $14,114. The average mileage on a used MINI Cooper 2016 for sale in Reading, Pennsylvania is 69,605. Based on the average mileage of 69,605 for used 2016 MINI Cooper for sale in Reading, PA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used MINI Cooper 2016 in Reading, Pennsylvania to be $6,282.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius100 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.