Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
1,084 listings

Save with Mercedes-Benz C-Class rebates
Check your savings potential before you buy

  • New Listing
    • 56,995 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to MI*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Pleasanton, CA / 1,926 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF6EB9JU243331
    Stock: 27237559
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $34,998
    fair price
    $171 above market
    • 41,344 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 6cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NC to MI*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Gastonia, NC / 582 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWK6EB3JF668915
    Stock: 26262542
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 139,955 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 17 City / 25 Hwy MPG
    • C.C.R. Auto Sales (154 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in New Lenox, IL / 154 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/25 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDGF81X88F157054
    Stock: 157054
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-20-2025

  • Photos not available
    $13,997
    fair price
    $310 below market
    • 119,836 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Western Star Auto Sales (128 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Chicago, IL / 128 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    No matter where you're from, we re here to assist you. Our team is fluent in Spanish, English, Polish, Ukrainian, and Russian, so you ll always feel u...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWF4JB4JR350945
    Stock: W1088
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-05-2025

  • $18,495
    fair price
    $577 above market
    • 52,106 miles
    • 1 accident, 5 owners, personal use
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Adam Auto Group (139 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Crestwood, IL / 139 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4KB1JU238276
    Stock: 3797
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-15-2025

  • New Listing
    $38,990
    fair price
    $281 above market
    • 65,976 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 8cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 246 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWK8HB5JF639519
    Stock: 2003816533
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-21-2025

    • 3,299 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 23 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Westfield Ford (139 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Countryside, IL / 139 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    LOOK AT THE MILES! ONLY 3,299 MILES! CAR IS LIKE NEW INSIDE AND OUT! HUGE MSRP! HUD, HEATED SEATS, HEATED STEERING WHEEL, DRIVERS ASST. PKG, 18INCH WH...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWF8EB4LR525456
    Stock: 52609
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-22-2025

  • $21,995
    fair price
    $618 above market
    • 31,961 miles
    • 4 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Baha Auto (137 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Burbank, IL / 137 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWF4KB6JR389079
    Stock: B32109
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $14,550
    fair price
    $442 above market
    • 126,730 miles
    • 3 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Lux Cars Chicago (130 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Buffalo Grove, IL / 130 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    2018 MERCEDES-BENZ C 300 4MATIC FEATURING RESPONSIVE 4-CYLINDER ENGINE AND REFINED 9-SPEED AUTOMATIC TRANSMISSION. STRIKING POLAR WHITE EXTERIOR WITH ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWF4KB7JR344555
    Stock: 9783
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-19-2025

  • New Listing
    • 56,143 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 8cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Mobile, AL / 857 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWK8GB0JF622015
    Stock: 2003677522
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-19-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 45,302 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 1,564 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4JB1JU280965
    Stock: 2003750534
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-07-2025

    • 6,509 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 8cyl automatic
    • Autos of Chicago (131 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Arlington Heights, IL / 131 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    Move up to our 2020 Mercedes-Benz AMG® C 63 S Coupe with the Driver Assistance and AMG Exterior Carbon Fiber Packs for precision engineering and drama...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDWJ8HB1LF979773
    Stock: 3625
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 12-19-2024

  • New Listing
    • 21,272 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 558 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4KB1JU250170
    Stock: 2003723907
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-15-2025

  • New Listing
    • 28,123 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 1,061 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4KB2JU275188
    Stock: 2003761297
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-24-2025

    • 72,333 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Ford City Motors (146 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Elgin, IL / 146 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4KB2JU252980
    Stock: 2529800
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 41,931 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 9 mi est. electric range
    • 28 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to MI*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Bakersfield, CA / 1,852 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (28 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4HB2JU239153
    Stock: 25808177
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 34,030 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Sacramento, CA / 1,885 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4JBXJU250251
    Stock: 2003776821
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-03-2025

  • New Listing
    • 69,884 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to MI*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Modesto, CA / 1,882 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4JB2JU263866
    Stock: 27303649
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 59,806 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from CA to MI*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Buena Park, CA / 1,847 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4JB7JU251437
    Stock: 27614994
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 73,770 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 23 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 558 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4KB7JU273789
    Stock: 2003789656
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-12-2025

  • New Listing
    • 41,212 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 24 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Los Angeles, CA / 1,855 miles away from Grand Rapids, MI

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 55SWF4JB9JU243128
    Stock: 2003784340
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-06-2025

Showing 442 - 462 out of 1,084 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Mercedes-Benz C-Class

Read recent reviews for the Mercedes-Benz C-Class
Overall Consumer Rating
4.2 out of 5 stars49 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 49 reviews
  • 5 star
    (59%)
  • 4 star
    (22%)
  • 3 star
    (6%)
  • 2 star
    (6%)
  • 1 star
    (6%)
5 out of 5 stars

class all it's own

a4lvr, 04/13/2014
2013 Mercedes-Benz C-Class C300 Luxury 4MATIC 4dr Sedan AWD (3.5L 6cyl 7A)
I purchased my 2013 C300 luxury 4matic in November of 2012. The new dash redesign inspired by the E-Class was a big improvement over the old design. The ext and int fit and finish is flawless. Great V6 acceleration. The ride is firm, smooth & quiet. The opt leather seats are firm & comfortable but lack a full range of adjustment for the front seat bottoms. I get 27-30 mpg on the highway. … 7 spd trans shifts smoothly. Nav system works well. Blind spot warning feature is excellent. Get the keyless go feature. Glove box is to small. The blue tooth phone system is very clear to the person being called. The last C-Class to be built in Germany for the US market. A car to keep for a long time.
Report abuse

Used 2018 Mercedes-Benz C-Class in Grand Rapids, MI Values

Estimated values
2018 Mercedes-Benz C-Class AMG C 43 4dr Sedan AWD (3.0L 6cyl Turbo 9A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$22,828$26,680$29,867
Clean$22,081$25,779$28,827
Average$20,837$24,277$27,093
Rough$19,219$22,325$24,840

The average list price of a used 2018 Mercedes-Benz C-Class in Grand Rapids, Michigan is $25,917. The average mileage on a used Mercedes-Benz C-Class 2018 for sale in Grand Rapids, Michigan is 56,596. Based on the average mileage of 56,596 for used 2018 Mercedes-Benz C-Class for sale in Grand Rapids, MI and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Mercedes-Benz C-Class 2018 in Grand Rapids, Michigan to be $20,837.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

EV Details

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.