Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
120 listings
  • $30,995
    great price
    $4,156 below market
    • 1,803 miles
    • No accidents, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Roadshow MINI (16 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Cordova, TN / 16 miles away from Memphis, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD02S2W19352
    Stock: 31669L
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-04-2025

  • $32,990
    fair price
    $1,376 below market
    • 5,858 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD01S2W19195
    Stock: S2W19195SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $32,990
    fair price
    $1,468 below market
    • 5,511 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Navigation System,Remote Star...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD07S2W28791
    Stock: S2W28791SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $33,590
    fair price
    $942 below market
    • 1,436 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Atlanta, GA / 332 miles away from Memphis, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD0XS2W33838
    Stock: 2003956980
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-28-2025

  • $31,905
    fair price
    $337 below market
    • 5,907 miles
    • No accidents, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Roadshow MINI (16 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Cordova, TN / 16 miles away from Memphis, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD02S2W29556
    Stock: 31741L
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 08-11-2025

  • $32,990
    fair price
    $965 below market
    • 5,497 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD0XS2W15050
    Stock: S2W15050SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $29,164
    good price
    $655 below market
    • 6,628 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Orlando, FL / 674 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,Rare Find,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Navig...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD01S2W45906
    Stock: S2W45906
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $27,990
    good price
    $557 below market
    • 6,622 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD09S2W31980
    Stock: S2W31980SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $28,559
    fair price
    $522 below market
    • 4,923 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD03S2W67308
    Stock: S2W67308SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $28,590
    fair price
    $338 below market
    • 4,546 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD02S2W31867
    Stock: S2W31867SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $28,670
    fair price
    $252 below market
    • 4,575 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD08S2W31811
    Stock: S2W31811SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $28,650
    fair price
    $218 below market
    • 4,873 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD02S2W32050
    Stock: S2W32050SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $27,990
    good price
    $836 below market
    • 5,103 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD07S2W31752
    Stock: S2W31752SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $31,998
    good price
    $2,606 below market
    • 1,251 miles
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from MD to TN*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in White Marsh, MD / 805 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW53GD09S2W53236
    Stock: 27576732
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 2,250 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in San Antonio, TX / 627 miles away from Memphis, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD01S2W56839
    Stock: 2004023182
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-26-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 312 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 422 miles away from Memphis, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW13GD08S2W49208
    Stock: 2003995926
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-22-2025

  • New Listing
    • 4,336 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from PA to TN*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Mechanicsburg, PA / 797 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD03S2W24169
    Stock: 27204075
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 5,113 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Rare Find,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyl...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW43GD02S2W86817
    Stock: S2W86817SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 5,645 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW53GD08S2W77138
    Stock: S2W77138SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 5,610 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 28 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    32 Combined MPG (28 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GD01S2W60622
    Stock: S2W60622SC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 5,067 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automated manual
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,853 miles away from Memphis, TN

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Rare Find,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyl...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (26 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WMW23GX04S2W66040
    Stock: S2W66040PC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 1 - 21 out of 120 listings

Consumer Reviews for the MINI Cooper

Read recent reviews for the MINI Cooper
Overall Consumer Rating
3 out of 5 stars2 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 2 reviews
  • 5 star
    (50%)
  • 4 star
    (0%)
  • 3 star
    (0%)
  • 2 star
    (0%)
  • 1 star
    (50%)
5 out of 5 stars

2 days in and loving it so far

Matt Hoskins, 03/11/2025
2025 MINI Cooper S Iconic 2dr Hatchback (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 7AM)
Hard to give a review after 2 days. One of my big concerns I’ve heard was the change from tactile switches to the big touchscreen, but since I didn’t drive a Mini before, it wasn’t an issue for me. The screen is very responsive, the AI assistant has been working well. There are so many functions, options and apps within the system, that will take a while to learn. The Cooper S is peppy … and fun to drive. There is almost no legroom in the two door - it might work for kids but not adults for any length of time, but my other car is an SUV so it wasn’t a consideration for me. The Ocean Wave color with white roof is beautiful.
Report abuse

Used 2025 MINI Cooper in Memphis, TN Values

Estimated values
2025 MINI Cooper S Iconic 2dr Hatchback (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 7AM) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
OutstandingN/AN/AN/A
CleanN/AN/AN/A
AverageN/AN/AN/A
RoughN/AN/AN/A

The average list price of a used 2025 MINI Cooper in Memphis, Tennessee is $32,058. The average mileage on a used MINI Cooper 2025 for sale in Memphis, Tennessee is 4,422. Based on the average mileage of 4,422 for used 2025 MINI Cooper for sale in Memphis, TN and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used MINI Cooper 2025 in Memphis, Tennessee to be N/A.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.