Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
1,728 listings
  • Stock photo**
    • 104,037 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 23 Hwy MPG
    • Bill Byrd Kia (215 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Panama City, FL / 215 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3BKJ4KR262467
    Stock: 262467
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-07-2025

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    • 114,515 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Barnes Crossing Mitsubishi (298 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Saltillo, MS / 298 miles away from Macon, GA

    Vehicle DetailsDiscover the epitome of sophistication and power with this 2019 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury. Equipped with a formidable V8, 6.2L e...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ4KR383146
    Stock: N10284
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-09-2025

  • $18,900
    great price
    $3,104 below market
    • 137,952 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Car Land Auto Trading (359 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Raleigh, NC / 359 miles away from Macon, GA

    **EASY FINANCING AVAILABLE !! JUST GO TO OUR WEBSITE @ carlandnc.com CLICK ON THE FINANCE TAB AND FILL OUT OUR SECURE QUICK CREDIT APP WE WILL CALL YO...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ8GR203152
    Stock: GR203152
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-18-2025

  • Selling or trading in?

    Know what your car is worth while you shop for your next vehicle.

    See my car’s value
  • New Listing
    $37,098
    great price
    $3,654 below market
    • 72,625 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Angela Krause Ford (85 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Alpharetta, GA / 85 miles away from Macon, GA

    2020 Cadillac Escalade Platinum Edition 4WD, Maple Sugar With Jet Black Accents Leather, Advanced Adaptive Cruise Control, Automatic Seat Belt Tighten...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4DKJ2LR177377
    Stock: ALL08993A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-23-2025

  • Price Drop
    $35,500
    great price
    $3,444 below market
    • 98,095 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Lexus of Lexington (357 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Lexington, KY / 357 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ8LR205161
    Stock: X37436B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-01-2025

  • $17,999
    good price
    $2,638 below market
    • 152,425 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • North Georgia Auto Brokers (68 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Snellville, GA / 68 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3BKJ0GR318170
    Stock: 8170akr
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $24,991
    good price
    $3,018 below market
    • 78,712 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • INFINITI of South Atlanta (62 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Union City, GA / 62 miles away from Macon, GA

    2016 Cadillac Escalade LuxuryBlack Leather.Recent Arrival! Priced below KBB Fair Purchase Price! Odometer is 42414 miles below market average!Contact...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3BKJ3GR156194
    Stock: GR156194
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-14-2025

  • Price Drop
    $20,874
    good price
    $2,735 below market
    • 116,748 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Car Sharpie (67 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Loganville, GA / 67 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3BKJ3GR386253
    Stock: 12774
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $27,888
    great price
    $1,788 below market
    • 76,586 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Gene Gorman's Auto Sales (426 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Punta Gorda, FL / 426 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3CKJXGR154724
    Stock: GA7069-A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-30-2025

  • $63,999
    good price
    $2,404 below market
    • 63,731 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Bella Nissan (62 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Union City, GA / 62 miles away from Macon, GA

    Experience unparalleled luxury and performance with the 2022 Cadillac Escalade Sport. This full-size SUV combines cutting-edge technology, sophisticat...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4FKL7NR222149
    Stock: P1450
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-17-2025

  • $16,256
    good price
    $1,342 below market
    • 126,113 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 13 City / 18 Hwy MPG
    • Curry Buick Chevrolet GMC (458 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Bloomington, IN / 458 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    15 Combined MPG (13 City/18 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CEF2ER121380
    Stock: F0155
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-30-2025

  • $72,980
    good price
    $3,305 below market
    • 35,170 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Impex Chevrolet GMC (337 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Reidsville, NC / 337 miles away from Macon, GA

    Clean CARFAX. Super Cruise2022 Cadillac Escalade Sport 4WD 10-Speed Automatic White 6.2L V8THIS VEHICLE INCLUDES THE FOLLOWING FEATURES AND OPTIONS: 4...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4FKL1NR254711
    Stock: 2CT4711
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-05-2024

  • New Listing
    $23,977
    good price
    $3,119 below market
    • 111,444 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Matt Jones Motorsports (106 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Cartersville, GA / 106 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3DKJXGR209520
    Stock: MJP209520
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $24,995
    good price
    $3,176 below market
    • 98,962 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Hoover Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram of Summerville (213 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Summerville, SC / 213 miles away from Macon, GA

    2016 Cadillac Escalade Premium w/Driver Assist Package 4WD 8-Speed Automatic Vortec 6.2L V8 SIDI Dark Granite MetallicPRICED UNDER MARKET, DEALER INSP...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ0GR254716
    Stock: 26350B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-01-2025

  • $26,898
    good price
    $2,673 below market
    • 86,686 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Universal Auto Sales of Plant City (351 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Plant City, FL / 351 miles away from Macon, GA

    Come see us and we will make it happen for you!!!

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ8GR283813
    Stock: 283813
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-05-2025

  • Price Drop
    $25,187
    good price
    $2,153 below market
    • 92,607 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Plymouth, MI / 656 miles away from Macon, GA

    Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Hands-Free Liftgate,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ0GR443585
    Stock: GR443585A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $80,943
    good price
    $3,215 below market
    • 13,114 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Step One Cadillac Pensacola (261 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Pensacola, FL / 261 miles away from Macon, GA

    **2022 Cadillac Escalade Sport Platinum Certified Pre-Owned Excellence**Experience the pinnacle of luxury, performance, and technology with this stunn...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4GKL4NR326801
    Stock: PNR326801
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 05-15-2025

  • Price Drop
    $41,946
    good price
    $3,021 below market
    • 59,887 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Leith Lincoln (365 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Raleigh, NC / 365 miles away from Macon, GA

    Black Raven 2020 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury 4WD 10-Speed Automatic with Overdrive 6.2L V8 4WD, Shale With Jet Black Accents Leather, Advanced Ad...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJXLR234998
    Stock: L505859A2
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-11-2025

  • $64,588
    fair price
    $309 below market
    • 50,789 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • CBS Quality Cars Hillsborough (348 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Hillsborough, NC / 348 miles away from Macon, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKL4NR162968
    Stock: 215666A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-25-2025

  • Price Drop
    $39,899
    good price
    $2,854 below market
    • 82,383 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Baker Cadillac Charleston (222 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Charleston, SC / 222 miles away from Macon, GA

    2020 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury Elegance, Power, and PresenceStep into full-size luxury with this stunning 2020 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ4LR191307
    Stock: C3952A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-11-2025

  • Price Drop
    $73,949
    good price
    $2,907 below market
    • 36,209 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • AutoNation USA Sanford (319 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Sanford, FL / 319 miles away from Macon, GA

    Super CruiseAssist Steps; Power-Retractable With Perimeter LightingPanoramic RoofGalactic Gray MetallicLeather SeatsNavigation System3rd Row Sea...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3GKL9NR358646
    Stock: NR358646
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-10-2025

Showing 442 - 462 out of 1,728 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Cadillac Escalade

Read recent reviews for the Cadillac Escalade
Overall Consumer Rating
3.2 out of 5 stars48 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 48 reviews
  • 5 star
    (38%)
  • 4 star
    (13%)
  • 3 star
    (13%)
  • 2 star
    (4%)
  • 1 star
    (33%)
3 out of 5 stars

3rd Time Escalade Owner

April, 07/22/2016
2016 Cadillac Escalade Platinum 4dr SUV 4WD (6.2L 8cyl 8A)
This is our third Escalade to own. I couldn't be more disappointed in the quality of the car this time. They really cut corners in the interior and it shows from parts coming unglued to the interior leather peeling. On the outside of the car the Crome trim on the door popped off and all four doors trim work between the doors had to be replaced. My car had less than 8k miles and they … replaced the transmission. For a vehicle costing almost 100k very disappointed Cadillac. This will be our last.
Report abuse

Used 2019 Cadillac Escalade in Macon, GA Values

Estimated values
2019 Cadillac Escalade Luxury 4dr SUV (6.2L 8cyl 10A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$25,853$28,337$30,545
Clean$25,307$27,735$29,890
Average$24,398$26,730$28,799
Rough$23,217$25,425$27,380

The average list price of a used 2019 Cadillac Escalade in Macon, Georgia is $38,156. The average mileage on a used Cadillac Escalade 2019 for sale in Macon, Georgia is 86,133. Based on the average mileage of 86,133 for used 2019 Cadillac Escalade for sale in Macon, GA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Cadillac Escalade 2019 in Macon, Georgia to be $24,398.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.