Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
1,389 listings
  • New Listing
    $27,998
    fair price
    $478 above market
    • 68,990 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 21 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TN to TX*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Murfreesboro, TN / 655 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDCZRAH8MS534121
    Stock: 27268301
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 35,794 miles
    • Insurance loss reported, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 21 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • TGA Auto (31 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Stafford, TX / 31 miles away from Spring, TX

    2021 Toyota Highlander XLERun and drive greatEverything worksRebuilt titleIf you have any question 2***

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDHZRAH8MS053288
    Stock: 053288
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-06-2025

  • Price Drop
    $27,998
    fair price
    $181 above market
    • 65,589 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from KY to TX*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Louisville, KY / 795 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDKZRFH5KS354922
    Stock: 26950943
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Know your buying power

    Shop smarter by knowing your car’s value.

    Appraise my car
  • Price Drop
    $26,990
    fair price
    $343 above market
    • 55,769 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 8 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 979 miles away from Spring, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDBZRFH2KS965832
    Stock: 2003639347
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-02-2025

    • 72,461 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 8 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Keating Nissan (16 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Conroe, TX / 16 miles away from Spring, TX

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDYZRFHXKS317360
    Stock: KS317360
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-08-2025

  • Price Drop
    $32,998
    fair price
    $744 below market
    • 41,482 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 21 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from FL to TX*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Orlando, FL / 857 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDHZRAHXMS525281
    Stock: 27321660
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $29,990
    good price
    $1,313 below market
    • 58,799 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 20 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 1,005 miles away from Spring, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDDZRFH7KS967553
    Stock: 2003659280
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-29-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 70,894 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Billings, MT / 1,298 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping A...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDJZRFH6KS608777
    Stock: 53477BM
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 59,908 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from San Antonio, TX*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in San Antonio, TX / 180 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDBZRBH2MS059561
    Stock: 27055814
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $35,995
    fair price
    $24 above market
    • 40,000 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Van Nuys, CA / 1,373 miles away from Spring, TX

    3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping Assist,Remote Start,Satell...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDGZRBH3MS084930
    Stock: MS084930P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $26,498
    good price
    $1,332 below market
    • 82,218 miles
    • 3 accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 8 Seats, 20 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 1,816 miles away from Spring, TX

    Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping Assist,Leather Seats,Navigatio...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDJZRFH5KS946946
    Stock: KS946946T
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $28,990
    fair price
    $430 above market
    • 105,765 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 392 miles away from Spring, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDGZRBH9MS118742
    Stock: 2003661721
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-23-2025

  • $37,998
    fair price
    $504 above market
    • 40,361 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from MD to TX*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Gaithersburg, MD / 1,208 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDJZRBH2MS158988
    Stock: 27191974
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $29,998
    fair price
    $164 above market
    • 112,660 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from KS to TX*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Merriam, KS / 618 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDDZRBH3MS157930
    Stock: 27256171
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 39,431 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
    • 8 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Don McGill Toyota (22 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 22 miles away from Spring, TX

    Recent Arrival! CARFAX One-Owner. 22/29 City/Highway MPGCelestial Silver 2023 Toyota Highlander LWhere the deals are good....I-10 at Kirkwood!!

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDKDRAH2PS040612
    Stock: 38177
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-31-2025

  • New Listing
    • 97,595 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Medford, OR / 1,734 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,3rd Row Seat,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping Assist,Leat...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDJZRFH6KS940945
    Stock: KS940945HA
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $32,998
    good price
    $1,876 below market
    • 59,463 miles
    • 7 Seats, 21 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from FL to TX*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Melbourne, FL / 903 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDGZRAHXMS534574
    Stock: 26364124
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $40,998
    fair price
    $396 above market
    • 41,875 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from SC to TX*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Greenville, SC / 829 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDFZRBH6MS074372
    Stock: 27289827
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 42,713 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 21 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from Plano, TX*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Plano, TX / 218 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDLZRAH6MS086705
    Stock: 25853545
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 98,220 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Bellevue, WA / 1,864 miles away from Spring, TX

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless S...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDGZRBH7MS082324
    Stock: MS082324A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 60,683 miles
    • Salvage reported, 2 owners, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 20 City / 24 Hwy MPG
    • Jaden Cars and Trucks (30 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 30 miles away from Spring, TX

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (20 City/24 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5TDZARFH6KS045143
    Stock: 045143
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 274 - 294 out of 1,389 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Toyota Highlander

Read recent reviews for the Toyota Highlander
Overall Consumer Rating
3.9 out of 5 stars89 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 89 reviews
  • 5 star
    (53%)
  • 4 star
    (15%)
  • 3 star
    (11%)
  • 2 star
    (8%)
  • 1 star
    (13%)
4 out of 5 stars

"Some Adjustment Needed"

Bill, 01/11/2020
2020 Toyota Highlander Limited 4dr SUV (3.5L 6cyl 8A)
Test drove the 2020 Limited. V-6 engine was responsive and ride was very quiet. Very good standard technology and driving safety packages. Interior had quality materials and good fit and finish. Second row captains chair seats are comfortable with plenty of room behind first row, third row seats useless except for small children which you would want in second row. Big disappointment … was drivers seat height adjustment; you better be 5'4" or above to have clear visibility over steering wheel and dash. Also, passenger seat has NO height adjustment; passengers 6'3" or above will be at or close to the ceiling. Except for the lack of adequate front seat height adjustments, I loved the car.
Report abuse

Used 2021 Toyota Highlander in Spring, TX Values

Estimated values
2021 Toyota Highlander L 4dr SUV (3.5L 6cyl 8A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$21,465$23,484$25,507
Clean$21,008$22,972$24,938
Average$20,247$22,119$23,990
Rough$19,256$21,010$22,758

The average list price of a used 2021 Toyota Highlander in Spring, Texas is $30,436. The average mileage on a used Toyota Highlander 2021 for sale in Spring, Texas is 64,318. Based on the average mileage of 64,318 for used 2021 Toyota Highlander for sale in Spring, TX and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Toyota Highlander 2021 in Spring, Texas to be $20,247.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius100 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.