Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
1,115 listings
    • 58,497 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • McAndrews Motors (292 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Arlington, TX / 292 miles away from Midland, TX

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKL2MR279687
    Stock: 43462
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 64,232 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 1,437 miles away from Midland, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ5KR160673
    Stock: 2003844269
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-27-2025

  • New Listing
    • 97,203 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Triple J's Auto Sales (305 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Lewisville, TX / 305 miles away from Midland, TX

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ3KR306617
    Stock: 002374
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-22-2024

    • 62,933 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Sewell Cadillac of Grapevine (299 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Grapevine, TX / 299 miles away from Midland, TX

    Sewell Cadillac of Grapevine proudly offers this Certified Preowned 2021 Cadillac Escalade Four Wheel Drive. This well-equipped vehicle features the f...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4GKL0MR391787
    Stock: 5361454A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-06-2025

  • New Listing
    • Not provided
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 18 Hwy MPG
    • Park Place Motorcars a Dallas Mercedes-Benz Dealer (311 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 311 miles away from Midland, TX

    RECALL NOTICE: Some vehicles offered for sale may be subject to unrepaired manufacturer safety recalls. To determine the recall status of a vehicle, v...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/18 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4GKL7PR342591
    Stock: 342591
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-15-2025

  • New Listing
    • 118,745 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Marc Miller Buick GMC (453 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Tulsa, OK / 453 miles away from Midland, TX

    This vehicle is a 2019 Cadillac Escalade LUXURY SUV 4x4 with a 6.2 liter 8 cylinder engine and fuel injection. It has a crystal white tricoat exterior...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKJ5KR192040
    Stock: 5T256A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-10-2025

  • New Listing
    • 61,132 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 18 Hwy MPG
    • Norman Hyundai (346 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Norman, OK / 346 miles away from Midland, TX

    Shop Quality Pre-Owned Cars, Trucks, SUVs, and Sedans at Norman Hyundai in Norman, OK Welcome to the all-new Norman Hyundai, your trusted dealership f...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/18 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKLXPR235294
    Stock: HP2
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 11-29-2024

  • New Listing
    • 64,087 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 23 Hwy MPG
    • Orr Nissan West (353 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 353 miles away from Midland, TX

    2019 Cadillac Escalade Luxury Satin Steel Metallic RWD 6.2L V8 10-Speed Automatic with Overdrive**GOT A JOB? GET A CAR!**, **NEW BRAKES**, **NEW TIRES...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3BKJ7KR386569
    Stock: 386569P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-05-2025

  • New Listing
    $33,590
    fair price
    $1,108 above market
    • 99,115 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 1,038 miles away from Midland, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ7KR376871
    Stock: 2003884959
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-11-2025

  • New Listing
    • 76,980 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Dealer One Auto Credit (353 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 353 miles away from Midland, TX

    WE WHOLESALE TO THE PUBLIC. WE OFFER FREE CARFAX ON OUR WEBSITE WWW.DEALERONEAUTO.COM Save THOUSAND! We have the absolute Best prices, We make buying ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4GKL0MR268040
    Stock: 268040
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-15-2024

  • New Listing
    • 102,743 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Exotic Motorsports of Oklahoma (364 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Edmond, OK / 364 miles away from Midland, TX

    THIS VEHICLE CAN BE SEEN BY APPOINTMENT ONLY. 2021 CADILLAC ESCALADE SPORT * SUV * BLACK RAVEN PAINT * BLACK INTERIOR * 6.2L V8 W/10-SPEED AUTO * MAGN...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4EKL5MR278647
    Stock: A398
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-03-2024

    • 114,080 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Sewell Cadillac of Grapevine (299 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Grapevine, TX / 299 miles away from Midland, TX

    Sewell Cadillac of Grapevine proudly offers this 2021 Cadillac Escalade Four Wheel Drive that has been professionally inspected by one of our Sewell t...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKL7MR210810
    Stock: 5365342A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-23-2025

    • 13,859 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 18 Hwy MPG
    • Autobahn BMW (280 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Fort Worth, TX / 280 miles away from Midland, TX

    Command the Road with the 2024 Cadillac Escalade Luxury: A Statement of Power, Prestige, and Precision for the Discerning DriverExperience the epitome...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/18 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKL3RR261728
    Stock: S9Z84150E
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-24-2025

    • 54,635 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 18 Hwy MPG
    • Patriot Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram of Tulsa (454 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Tulsa, OK / 454 miles away from Midland, TX

    GREAT PRICE ALERT!! Welcome to Patriot CDJR of Tulsa! We are here to provide the absolute best selection, best prices, and best service in Oklahoma!! ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/18 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4BKL6PR307088
    Stock: PT3118
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-27-2025

    • 59,500 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Diesel of Houston (409 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 409 miles away from Midland, TX

    ATTENTION: $64,995 W/FACTORY WHEELS (WE HAVE PHOTOS) ! IF YOU WANT THE NEW 26" WHEELS AND TIRES WILL BE $3K MORE $67,995!! 2021 CADILLAC ESCALADE PREM...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4DKLXMR263717
    Stock: 263717
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 10-15-2024

  • New Listing
    • 62,805 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Lewis Chevrolet (420 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Garden City, KS / 420 miles away from Midland, TX

    EquipmentThis vehicle stays safely in its lane with Lane Keep Assist. The leather seats in this model are a must for buyers looking for comfort, durab...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4DKL7MR206777
    Stock: P5967A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-16-2025

  • New Listing
    • 60,465 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Buffalo, NY / 1,472 miles away from Midland, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ8KR291442
    Stock: 2003885544
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-18-2025

  • New Listing
    • 70,655 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 1,038 miles away from Midland, TX

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4CKJ6KR288488
    Stock: 2003766275
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-15-2025

  • New Listing
    • 90,584 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Troy, MI / 1,265 miles away from Midland, TX

    3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Hands-Free Liftgate,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Navigation Syste...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4AKL1MR318540
    Stock: MR318540TA
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes

  • New Listing
    • 101,000 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 23 Hwy MPG
    • ORR GMC (430 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Longview, TX / 430 miles away from Midland, TX

    This 2019 Cadillac Escalade comes equipped with All-Weather Floor Liner Package (LPO), Driver Assist Package (Advanced Adaptive Cruise Control, Automa...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (14 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS3CKJ2KR100732
    Stock: T100732
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-03-2025

    • 24,792 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 11 City / 16 Hwy MPG
    • Autos of Texas - Tyler Loop 323 (395 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Tyler, TX / 395 miles away from Midland, TX

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    13 Combined MPG (11 City/16 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GYS4HK93PR430452
    Stock: 430452
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 337 - 357 out of 1,115 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Cadillac Escalade

Read recent reviews for the Cadillac Escalade
Overall Consumer Rating
3.9 out of 5 stars44 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 44 reviews
  • 5 star
    (59%)
  • 4 star
    (14%)
  • 3 star
    (5%)
  • 2 star
    (5%)
  • 1 star
    (18%)
1 out of 5 stars

POS

Wade Edington, 11/03/2019
2017 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury 4dr SUV 4WD (6.2L 8cyl 8A)
I’ve had my 2017 CPO Escalade a little over a year now and it has been in the shop numerous times for various things for a total of almost 2 months. So far the transmission completely died (on day 1 of ownership, I didn’t even make it home from the dealer), the motor mounts had to be replaced, I continue to have transmission shift problems (but according to the dealer, they are 100% … normal), brake problems, electrical problems, various rattles and squeaks, the front end collision prevention system no longer functions. I like the car but wish they would just give me a different one, mine is cursed.
Report abuse

Used 2021 Cadillac Escalade in Midland, TX Values

Estimated values
2021 Cadillac Escalade Premium Luxury 4dr SUV 4WD (6.2L 8cyl 10A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$47,581$50,530$53,484
Clean$46,838$49,728$52,621
Average$45,599$48,391$51,183
Rough$43,989$46,652$49,313

The average list price of a used 2021 Cadillac Escalade in Midland, Texas is $57,390. The average mileage on a used Cadillac Escalade 2021 for sale in Midland, Texas is 69,431. Based on the average mileage of 69,431 for used 2021 Cadillac Escalade for sale in Midland, TX and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Cadillac Escalade 2021 in Midland, Texas to be $45,599.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.