Skip to FiltersReport abuse
329 listings
- 60,882 miles
- 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 34 Hwy MPG
- Koons Kia of Woodbridge (1 mi away)
Close
Located in Woodbridge, VA / 1 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid Limited **BLUETOOTH**, **ONE OWNER**, **SUNROOF/MOONROOF**, **NAVIGATION/NAV/GPS**, **WOW WOW**, **LOW LOW MILES**, **EA...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/34 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDXBRCH3MS037593
Stock: W9509
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-19-2025- New Listing
- 55,229 miles
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- CarMax Fredericksburg (29 mi away)
Close
Located in Fredericksburg, VA / 29 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDGBRCH5MS530692
Stock: 27133209
Certified Pre-Owned: No - 89,474 miles
- 1 accident, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 7 Seats, 27 City / 28 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from IL to VA*
Close
Located in Schaumburg, IL / 615 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
28 Combined MPG (27 City/28 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDDCRFH8FS009545
Stock: 26456135
Certified Pre-Owned: No- New Listing
- 36,171 miles
- 8 Seats, 29 City / 27 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from CA to VA*
Close
Located in San Jose, CA / 2,407 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.
Features and Specs:
28 Combined MPG (29 City/27 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDJGRFH0KS065903
Stock: 26183401
Certified Pre-Owned: No - 60,766 miles
- 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 27 City / 28 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from NV to VA*
Close
Located in Las Vegas, NV / 2,074 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
28 Combined MPG (27 City/28 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDDCRFH1FS013405
Stock: 27403373
Certified Pre-Owned: No- Price Drop$29,998fair price$1,049 above market
- 86,008 miles
- 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
- 8 Seats, 29 City / 27 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from MO to VA*
Close
Located in Springfield, MO / 874 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
28 Combined MPG (29 City/27 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDJGRFHXKS063639
Stock: 26895379
Certified Pre-Owned: No - New Listing
- 54,702 miles
- 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Bill Page Toyota (18 mi away)
Close
Located in Falls Church, VA / 18 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid XLE Blizzard Pearl AWD eCVT 2.5L I4 PDI Hybrid DOHC 16V LEV3-SULEV30 186hp2.5L I4 PDI Hybrid DOHC 16V LEV3-SULEV30 186hp...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDGBRCH4MS528187
Stock: P8541
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-28-2025 - Price Drop$34,500good price$946 below market
- 27,253 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
- 8 Seats, 36 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Koons Buick GMC of Woodbridge (1 mi away)
Close
Located in Woodbridge, VA / 1 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2022 Toyota Highlander Hybrid LE Magnetic Gray Metallic Apple Carplay & Android Audio, Huge Panoramic Sunroof, Power Sunroof, Sirius XM, Backup Camera...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
36 Combined MPG (36 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDZARAH6NS517160
Stock: P4781
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-16-2025 - $26,995fair price$118 below market
- 111,895 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Capitol Motors of Stafford (12 mi away)
Close
Located in Stafford, VA / 12 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
Capitol Motors of Stafford LLC3316 RICHMOND HWY, STAFFORD, VA 22554540-659-1000capitolmotorsdmv.comWarranty: Extended warranties available on most veh...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDBBRCH2NS545436
Stock: DMV5703
Certified Pre-Owned: No - $35,988fair price$1,169 below market
- 67,774 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Jerry's Toyota (66 mi away)
Close
Located in Baltimore, MD / 66 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2022 Toyota Highlander Hybrid Bronze Edition AWD. Only 67,670 miles. Toyota's best selling midsize SUV. Seven passenger seating, all the luxury featur...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDABRCH5NS544695
Stock: 250468A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 02-25-2025 - $32,998fair price
- 91,378 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 36 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from TX to VA*
Close
Located in El Paso, TX / 1,700 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
36 Combined MPG (36 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDFARAH8LS002497
Stock: 26102849
Certified Pre-Owned: No - $39,500fair price$72 below market
- 47,997 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Haley Certified Preowned (80 mi away)
Close
Located in Richmond, VA / 80 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
*Vehicle pricing excludes tax, title, tags, $799 processing fee, and $319 fee for theft protection etch.*
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDGBRCH6NS548720
Stock: J6714
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-07-2025 - $30,000good price$761 below market
- 83,324 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- DARCARS Toyota of Silver Spring (35 mi away)
Close
Located in Silver Spring, MD / 35 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2022 Toyota Highlander Hybrid LE CARFAX One-Owner. Clean CARFAX.Blueprint 2.5L I4 PDI Hybrid DOHC 16V LEV3-SULEV30 186hp. AWD 2.5L I4 PDI Hybrid DOH...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDBBRCH7NS561308
Stock: 52A2121A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-05-2025 - New Listing
Photos not available$34,000good price$1,360 below market- 40,578 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Ourisman Honda of Laurel (41 mi away)
Close
Located in Laurel, MD / 41 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CARFAX One-Owner. This 2022 Moon Dust Toyota Highlander Hybrid LE AWD is well equipped and includes these features and benefits:. eCVT 2.5L I4 PDI H...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDBBRCH0NS081126
Stock: 6072421A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-31-2025 - $31,988fair price$723 above market
- 85,573 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Loyalty Nissan (92 mi away)
Close
Located in Chester, VA / 92 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
This 2020 Toyota Highlander Hybrid XLE AWD is a smart and capable three-row SUV with 85,571 miles, finished in the elegant Blizzard Pearl exterior. Bu...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDHBRCH2LS002031
Stock: 5002031
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-11-2025 - $28,061good price
- 84,146 miles
- 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 34 Hwy MPG
- Driveway (In-stock online)
- Home delivery*
Close
Located in Dallas, TX / 1,157 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
Green Vehicle,3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping Assist,Remote Start,Satel...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/34 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDBBRCH2LS509226
Stock: LS509226P
Certified Pre-Owned: No - $32,988fair price$163 above market
- 102,025 miles
- No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- Jerry's Toyota (66 mi away)
Close
Located in Baltimore, MD / 66 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
2022 Toyota Highlander Hybrid XLE AWD. Only 102,023 miles. Toyota's best selling midsize SUV. 7 Passenger seating, spacious cargo area, sporty exterio...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDGBRCHXNS544394
Stock: P21915
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-12-2025 - New Listing$33,998fair price$200 above market
- 71,079 miles
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from WA to VA*
Close
Located in Puyallup, WA / 2,319 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDHBRCH2LS501539
Stock: 27469475
Certified Pre-Owned: No - New Listing$38,000fair price$131 above market
- 40,677 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 35 City / 34 Hwy MPG
- Jim Coleman Toyota (29 mi away)
Close
Located in Bethesda, MD / 29 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
1 OWNER, CLEAN CARFAX, LIMITED-AWD, JBL PREMIUM AUDIO, HEATED AND VENTILATED FRONT SEATS, ANDROID AUTO/APPLE CARPLAY, LEATHER SEATS, NAVIGATION, POWER...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/34 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDXBRCH5LS006327
Stock: 93915A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-26-2025 - New Listing$40,998fair price$84 below market
- 37,644 miles
- 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
- 7 Seats, 36 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- CarMax (In-stock online)
- Transfer available from CO to VA*
Close
Located in Federal Heights, CO / 1,481 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
36 Combined MPG (36 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDFARAH4LS004344
Stock: 26700567
Certified Pre-Owned: No - New Listing$39,998fair price$231 above market
- 43,100 miles
- 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
- 8 Seats, 35 City / 35 Hwy MPG
- CarMax Dulles (28 mi away)
Close
Located in Sterling, VA / 28 miles away from Woodbridge, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
35 Combined MPG (35 City/35 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 5TDHBRCH6NS554019
Stock: 27275403
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Showing 64 - 84 out of 329 listings
Consumer Reviews for the Toyota Highlander Hybrid
Read recent reviews for the Toyota Highlander Hybrid
If you prefer a comfortable ride
mykecusa, 05/29/2017
2017 Toyota Highlander Hybrid Limited Platinum 4dr SUV AWD (3.5L 6cyl gas/electric hybrid CVT)
The Toyota Highlander expert reviews are spot on. The car is quiet and comfortable. However I am and old grandpa and drive like one my kids say ... slow, steady and easy going. I drive 65 mph on the freeways and the posted speed limits in town. I do not, 'Jack rabbit start' only to race to the next stop sign/red light to slam on my brakes. I get an typical 25 mpg per tank full of … gasoline. I do regular servicing. The 2017 caught my attention with increased hosepower, better fuel economy and better safety features (I really like the 360 dregree camera view).
UPDATE: 12/8/2017
I really like this SUV. It is a quiet and comfortable ride. Plenty of cargo space for my service dog with 2nd row seats up for up to 3 passengers, with the dog. I have been getting 22-24 mpg with the A/C, or heater on, and 25-27 with both off. This is roughly 50-50 city-highway. The electric motor truly takes a gentle foot to stay engaged, and really is quite limited in being engaged ... maybe a mile if lucky. Learning to use it does add to the fuel economy. The ECO function is suppose to improve fuel economy in town with start ups. I used it the first 2500 miles and did not use it the last 2500 miles. I notice no difference in fuel economy and it is essentially the same type of mileage. I notice a little more acceleration with the 2017 over the 2016, but it might be more to the slight noise increase I can hear. The hybrid is spunky on acceleration if you need it.
For me, a disabled veteran, the biggest plus has been the sensors and safety features. There are 4 levels to the robotic car industry, where level 4 is fully computer managed automobile. The 2017 Highlander is level 2. It has lane monitoring and automatic correction. I have only used the auto correction feature a few times. It does take having lane lines on both sides, but it has worked for me. I'm not sure I'm ready to close my eye though. The sensor alert when I drift over a lane line is useful to me though.
Since I am blind in my left eye, the safety sensors really help. I get alerts not only if autos are on my left side, but at intersections if people are in the cross walk. The alert also works for people walking behind, or on the side of my SUV. A nice safety feature in parking lots for sure.
Everything has worked nicely and I have no complaints about the Toyota Highlander Hybrid at the time.
Update 6/2018
I'm liking this SUV more and more all the time. It takes time to learn and develop the muscle responses to best use the hybrid system. I can now effectively use the ECO and EV systems to improve my gasoline mpg. I can pretty much count on 25 mpg all around combined average (24 in Winter with heat/air, 26 in Summer with no heat/air). The camera views are a blessing for close spaces and parking. I now have 9200 miles on the vehicle, and consider it the best drive I ever bought.
Update: 12/2018
I still give this SUV an A+. I get great fuel economy for a 5,000 pound SUV. I count on averaging 25 mpg, getting as low as 22 mpg with A/C, or heater on and lots of stop and go traffic,or 30 mpg with steady highway driving. (note: I am a moderate driver, driving the posted speed limit and no quick starts and sudden stops ... easy does it)
The ride remains smooth, quiet and easy. The camera views are still A+, as well as the Dynamic Cruise Control. Absolutely no regrets buying this Toyota Hybrid SUV. Current mileage is 13,000, and I just had the 18 month maintenance service. Everything A+. The dealer has been great with the service.
I still give this SUV A+ rating. I only have 17,000 miles on it, and reviews say I can expect 300,000 if I maintain the vehicle. There have been zero problems and the 25,000 service plane provided has been easy to use. Nothing shows serious wear, and the ride remains smooth and quiet.
Update 6/13/2020
With the pandemic I have put only 260 miles on this SUV in the last 4 months. Current mileage is 19,410. Being retired has its pluses and minuses. No regrets on buying this SUV, as it is quiet, comfortable ride that is very economical (minimum servicing, fuel efficient). From what I read about Toyota reliability, my kids might be able to pass this SUV on to their kids.
Update: 12/17/2020
I have learned a negative about this hybrid. With the pandemic 90% of my driving is local city driving. Lots of drive a block, stop ... drive a block, stop type driving. Very little highway driving. The result has been very low fuel economy ... like 8, 9 mpg. I did do one 100 mile trip and return. Once again I got great mpg on it, like 28 mpg. However for basically city/local driving the SUV hybrid for a big SUV does not seem to me to be the ticket.
Update: 6/20/2021 23,000 miles
Still no regrets buying this SUV. I have had no problwms needing service. All my problems have been resolved by reading the service manuals. I have followed the manual reccomendations for servicing, borh time and component. This hybrid canget 300,000 miles if cared for.
Used 2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid in Woodbridge, VA Values
Estimated values
2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid Limited 4dr SUV AWD (2.5L 4cyl gas/electric hybrid CVT) with no options
| Condition | Trade-In | Private Party | Dealer Retail |
|---|---|---|---|
| Outstanding | $30,808 | $33,030 | $35,258 |
| Clean | $30,152 | $32,310 | $34,472 |
| Average | $29,059 | $31,110 | $33,161 |
| Rough | $27,638 | $29,550 | $31,458 |
The average list price of a used 2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid in Woodbridge, Virginia is $34,048. The average mileage on a used Toyota Highlander Hybrid 2021 for sale in Woodbridge, Virginia is 65,604. Based on the average mileage of 65,604 for used 2021 Toyota Highlander Hybrid for sale in Woodbridge, VA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Toyota Highlander Hybrid 2021 in Woodbridge, Virginia to be $29,059.
Filters
Skip to ResultsApplied Filters4Active
Make & Model
Year
New / Used
Price & Payments
Price Rating
Body Type
Trim
Mileage
Accidents & History
Engine & Drivetrain
Exterior Color
Interior Color
Total Seating
Edmunds Review
Features
Options & Packages
MPG
* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.