Used 2015 Dodge Challenger for Sale in Alexandria, VA
Describe what you’re looking for
BETA
Skip to FiltersReport abuse
867 listings
- Price Drop
$16,799fair price$903 below market100,000 milesNo accidents, 2 Owners, Corporate fleet vehicle6cyl AutomaticCarplug of Alexandria (2 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Leather Seats
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Alexandria, VA / 2 miles away from Alexandria, VA
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG5JH280517
Stock: CP2882
Certified Pre-Owned: No 
$19,995good price$2,217 below market81,985 miles1 Accident, 8 Owners, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticZoom Auto (21 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Sunroof/Moonroof
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Dumfries, VA / 21 miles away from Alexandria, VA
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
18 Combined MPG (15 City/23 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBTXGH114434
Stock: ZAS114434
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-26-2024
$53,590fair price$366 below market25,846 milesNo accidents, 2 Owners, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticCarvana (In-stock online)Free home delivery*- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Keyless Entry/Start
Close
Located in Sacramento, CA / 2,371 miles away from Alexandria, VA
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
16 Combined MPG (13 City/21 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZC97GH191751
Stock: 2002847641
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-16-2024
$26,990fair price36,416 milesNo accidents, 2 Owners, Corporate fleet vehicle8cyl AutomaticCarvana (In-stock online)Free home delivery*- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
Close
Located in San Antonio, TX / 1,382 miles away from Alexandria, VA
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBTXGH232595
Stock: 2002794230
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-25-2024
$53,990fair price$31 above market15,986 miles1 Accident, 2 Owners, Personal use8cyl AutomaticCarvana (In-stock online)Free home delivery*- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Sunroof/Moonroof
Close
Located in Boston, MA / 396 miles away from Alexandria, VA
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
16 Combined MPG (13 City/21 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZC9XGH117983
Stock: 2002805237
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-23-2024- Price Drop
$18,998fair price$37 above market52,267 milesNo accidents, 3 Owners, Personal use6cyl AutomaticCarMax (In-stock online)Delivery available*- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- USB Inputs
Close
Located in Tolleson, AZ / 1,987 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG9GH225819
Stock: 25512871
Certified Pre-Owned: No 
6,866 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use only6cyl AutomaticCarvana (In-stock online)Free home delivery*- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Upgraded Headlights
- Blind Spot Monitorin...
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Phoenix, AZ / 1,973 miles away from Alexandria, VA
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG6GH336151
Stock: 2002883887
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-24-2024- New Listing
$22,998fair price$34 below market82,393 milesNo accidents, 3 Owners, Corporate fleet vehicle8cyl AutomaticCarMax (In-stock online)Delivery available*- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Palmdale, CA / 2,275 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBT8GH177435
Stock: 25777117
Certified Pre-Owned: No - Price Drop
$19,287good price$1,340 below market106,336 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticDriveway (In-stock online)Home delivery*- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Sanford, FL / 733 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Rare Find,Back-Up Camera,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Keyless Start,Navigation System,WiFi Hotspot,4-Wheel Disc ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
18 Combined MPG (15 City/23 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBT2GH153695
Stock: GH153695
Certified Pre-Owned: No - Price Drop
$17,995fair price$492 below market70,655 miles2 Accidents, 3 Owners, Corporate fleet vehicle6cyl AutomaticZoom Auto (21 mi away)- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- USB Inputs
Close
Located in Dumfries, VA / 21 miles away from Alexandria, VA
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG4GH193121
Stock: ZAS193121
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-25-2024 - Price Drop
$28,995fair price$1,077 above market13,390 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use8cyl ManualHyman Bros Infiniti of Richmond (95 mi away)- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Sunroof/Moonroof
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Midlothian, VA / 95 miles away from Alexandria, VA
~ONE OWNER~ CLEAN CARFAX~ JUST 13,000 MILES~
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
18 Combined MPG (15 City/23 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDYBT8CH238951
Stock: P30341
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 01-18-2024 - Price Drop
$16,888fair price$301 below market132,745 miles1 Accident, 2 Owners, Rental vehicle8cyl AutomaticBumble Auto - Ellicott City (35 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Leather Seats
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Upgraded Headlights
Close
Located in Ellicott City, MD / 35 miles away from Alexandria, VA
Delve into a world of exceptional pre-owned vehicles at Bumble Auto, where quality and affordability coalesce. Our varied inventory accommodates diffe...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBT9JH259617
Stock: B1910
Certified Pre-Owned: No 
$15,000fair price$660 above market133,196 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use only6cyl AutomaticSafford Chrysler Jeep Dodge Ram of Warrenton (39 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Upgraded Headlights
- Blind Spot Monitorin...
Close
Located in Warrenton, VA / 39 miles away from Alexandria, VA
Recent Arrival! 2016 Dodge Challenger SXT Non-Smoker, Professionally Detailed, Local Clean Trade-In, 8.4 Touchscreen Display, Auto-dimming Rear-View ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG5GH255920
Stock: N233860C
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 04-26-2024
$17,995fair price$204 below market72,885 miles2 Accidents, 2 Owners, Personal use6cyl AutomaticCarnova (27 mi away)- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Sunroof/Moonroof
- Power Driver Seat
Close
Located in Stafford, VA / 27 miles away from Alexandria, VA
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/27 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDYAG1EH302318
Stock: CSA6939
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 11-29-2023
$24,500fair price$1,160 above market80,697 milesNo accidents, 2 Owners, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticKoons Kia of Woodbridge (16 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Keyless Entry/Start
Close
Located in Woodbridge, VA / 16 miles away from Alexandria, VA
2018 Dodge Challenger R/T Plus **BLUETOOTH**, **NAVIGATION/NAV/GPS**, **WOW WOW**, **EASY TO FINANCE**, **REAR BACKUP CAMERA**, 1-Yr SiriusXM Guardian...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZBT5JH246086
Stock: 000S0494
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-02-2024
$26,998fair price$845 above market19,214 miles8cyl AutomaticCarMax (In-stock online)Delivery available*- Bluetooth
- Sunroof/Moonroof
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- USB Inputs
Close
Located in Madison, WI / 712 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDYBT3EH313591
Stock: 25683802
Certified Pre-Owned: No
$18,750fair price$748 above market93,187 milesNo accidents, 2 Owners, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticVmark Cars (45 mi away)- Bluetooth
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- USB Inputs
- Upgraded Engine
Close
Located in Fredericksburg, VA / 45 miles away from Alexandria, VA
2014 Dodge Challenger 5.7 HEMI R/T RWD. Remote smart, push start button, Bluettoth, Power seats, Premium sound system, premium wheels Visit Vmarkcars ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDYBT3EH282035
Stock: M1388
Certified Pre-Owned: No
$16,995fair price$188 below market99,410 miles3 Accidents, 2 Owners, Personal use6cyl AutomaticInTouch Auto Outlet (46 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Keyless Entry/Start
Close
Located in Spotsylvania Courthouse, VA / 46 miles away from Alexandria, VA
*** SXT PLUS PACKAGE, SUPER TRACK PACKAGE, UCONNECT NAVIGATION SYSTEM, 20 Inch Plus Wheels Front Seat Heaters A/C Seat(s) Heated Steering Wheel Alloy...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: No
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG2JH183131
Stock: A4474
Certified Pre-Owned: No
$27,995fair price$1,333 above market25,060 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use6cyl AutomaticHyman Bros Mitsubishi (95 mi away)- Back-up camera
- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Leather Seats
- Sunroof/Moonroof
Close
Located in Midlothian, VA / 95 miles away from Alexandria, VA
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG6JH231763
Stock: P29915
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-01-2022- New Listing
96,927 milesNo accidents, 1 Owner, Personal use only8cyl AutomaticCarMax (In-stock online)Delivery available*- Bluetooth
- Navigation
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- Upgraded Stereo
Close
Located in Colma, CA / 2,439 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDYBT4EH257564
Stock: 25317578
Certified Pre-Owned: No 
$17,998fair price$558 above market91,202 milesNo accidents, 3 Owners, Personal use only6cyl AutomaticCarMax (In-stock online)Delivery available*- Bluetooth
- Keyless Entry/Start
- Power Driver Seat
- Tire Pressure Warnin...
- USB Inputs
Close
Located in Oceanside, CA / 2,264 miles away from Alexandria, VA
CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
23 Combined MPG (19 City/30 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 2C3CDZAG5GH202988
Stock: 25572747
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Consumer Reviews for the Dodge Challenger
Read recent reviews for the Dodge Challenger
Traded in a 2012 Chrysler 300c AWD Luxury Series..
Ray H, 07/21/2015
2015 Dodge Challenger R/T Scat Pack 2dr Coupe (6.4L 8cyl 6M)
If you are buying this car for the gas mileage...don't! Although if you don't go crazy around town you can get 15 of the most fun miles per gallon you have ever experienced. If you travel on open roads, look for around 22 - 24 MPG. This car is not about gas mileage, it is about fun, and it delivers that! I am old enough to remember the original Challenger the current 2015 is based on … (1971) and Dodge nailed it on this one. A classic look brought into the 21st century. I have the 6 speed Tremec manual transmission that is hooked up to the new 392 CID Hemi engine from Dodge with 485 HP and 475 ft/lb of torque. What a blast to run it thru the gears and hear the Active Exhaust screaming - this car is not subtle! Take all of the good things you remember from the 'old days' and add safety to it, and you have the Scat Pack. (Active Exhaust re-routes the exhaust gases around the baffles, basically giving you 'straight flow pipes' from the catalytic converters to the rear of the car, i.e., no mufflers, no resonators. It is electronically controlled so driving around town or highway under light load the car is (relatively) quiet. Step on the gas pedal hard, everything gets re-routed in an instant and OMG! what a nice sound!)
The car rides very comfortably and is surprisingly nimble for 2+ tons of fun - lots of back roads here in Western Pennsylvania and this car does well on them. It isn't a Porsche by any means, but it also isn't an aircraft carrier either, LOL! Straight line acceleration is scary - you are hitting red line and road speed limits *REAL* fast. Nice thing is that it also stops REAL quick with the 4 piston Brembo brakes at all 4 wheels. The interior is well done, with nice finishes and materials - nicer than the current Camaros and Mustangs by a longshot. When at cruising interstate speeds, the car is quiet enough that you can have a normal conversation with your significant other. The back seats are actually usable if you're not 6' or taller, and have nice leg room for a two door coupe.
The U-Connect entertainment/NAV unit is probably the best and most user-friendly system on the market. I have an iPod, a USB stick and an SD memory card, all with music on them active at the same time. I can also connect my phone via Bluetooth for the normal stuff - and it can read my text messages to me as I am driving. I do wish that they had used either a faster processor or more memory in the unit, it takes a few seconds to get a screen every time you browse your music - even if you just did it. It appears that they don't index once and remember until something changes, but re-index on every browse. When you have 60 Gb of music, that takes about 10-15 seconds!
Let's get back to performance for a minute - did I mention it is fast?! I haven't had mine on the track yet, but others I know with the same car are running in the range of 12.5sec/110mph for the 1/4 mile - on stock tires and wheels. If I had to find complaint with this car, it's that the tires just aren't wide enough to hook up quickly - only 245/35 tires and 9"x20" rims come on this beast. I guess Dodge figured the aftermarket would take care of that. To put this in perspective, this is faster than those original 426 CID Hemis that everyone remembers from the 'old days' by a wide margin. Isn't Science and Engineering wonderful!!! You can bring up 'Performance Pages' onscreen that let you choose how you want your Sport Mode button set up, such as quicker engine response and opening the Active Exhaust, turning off traction control, changing the effort on the electrically powered steering. It also has a Launch Page - set your RPM, it takes the engine to that speed and helps keep the wheels from spinning when you release the clutch. Did I mention it is fast?
Would I make the deal again, trading in a beautiful, smooth, high end leather and wood interior, all wheel drive Hemi for this, knowing what I know about the Scat Pack now and knowing that winter driving will be limited in the Scat Pack because of so much torque at any range??? Hell YEAH!!! In a rapid heartbeat!!! This car has the best price/performance ratio of any car out there.
Update: 2016-07-21, 6300 miles on it
1) MPG - isn't something I care about!
2) Useless in snow/ice, good in everything else
3) got louder and quicker
4) interior still tight and quiet
5) tired of vague shifting, replaced linkage with Barton Industries linkage. MUCH better!
6) still draws a crowd, still gets 'thumbs up' on the road!
7) still smile when starting and driving it
8) WOULD DO THE PURCHASE AGAIN! Not sure having this much fun is still legal!!!
**Update January, 2019 (15610 miles on the odometer) :
Now cammed, tuned and putting out 510 HP at the wheels! OST Dyno rules!
**Update 08/01/19 - All above still applies!
***Update 01/29/21 - Still own it, still having fun! Still sounds solid inside, roars from the outside. No major problems mechanically, paint still pearl white. FUN!
Used 2018 Dodge Challenger in Alexandria, VA Values
Estimated values
2018 Dodge Challenger SXT Plus 2dr Coupe (3.6L 6cyl 8A) with no options
| Condition | Trade-In | Private Party | Dealer Retail |
|---|---|---|---|
| Outstanding | $17,035 | $19,546 | $21,804 |
| Clean | $16,573 | $18,985 | $21,143 |
| Average | $15,802 | $18,049 | $20,041 |
| Rough | $14,801 | $16,832 | $18,608 |
The average list price of a used 2018 Dodge Challenger in Alexandria, Virginia is $24,131. The average mileage on a used Dodge Challenger 2018 for sale in Alexandria, Virginia is 68,413. Based on the average mileage of 68,413 for used 2018 Dodge Challenger for sale in Alexandria, VA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Dodge Challenger 2018 in Alexandria, Virginia to be $15,802.
* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.