Your Privacy

By accessing this website, you acknowledge that Edmunds and its third-party business partners may use cookies, pixels, and similar technologies to collect information about you and your interactions with the website as described in our Privacy Statement; and you agree that your use of the website is subject to our Visitor Agreement.
Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
2,847 listings
    • 139,623 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • VA Finest Car Sales (433 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Roanoke, VA / 433 miles away from Columbus, GA

    Visit VA Finest Car Sales LLC online at vafinestcars.com to see more pictures of this vehicle or call us at 540-354-0066 today to schedule your test ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MM5FC685604
    Stock: A1345
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 89,029 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to GA*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Parking sensors
    Close

    Located in Austin, TX / 769 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN7KC640342
    Stock: 26962988
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 92,946 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from IL to GA*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Tinley Park, IL / 640 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MM3FC610108
    Stock: 26433436
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 84,612 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from AZ to GA*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Gilbert, AZ / 1,548 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MM9KC589241
    Stock: 27062080
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 67,637 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from MD to GA*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Parking sensors
    Close

    Located in Salisbury, MD / 665 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN2KC649403
    Stock: 26380260
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 70,800 miles
    • Issue reported, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Swope Nissan (360 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Elizabethtown, KY / 360 miles away from Columbus, GA

    SummaryWelcome to the exclusive Swope Nissan online vehicle listings.EquipmentThe state of the art park assist system will guide you easily into any s...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MM2KC643821
    Stock: U25901600
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-16-2025

  • New Listing
    • 52,952 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from OK to GA*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Norman, OK / 739 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MN8FC626023
    Stock: 26564146
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 79,352 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Twin City Buick GMC (233 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Alcoa, TN / 233 miles away from Columbus, GA

    This vehicle is located at Twin City Auto Center 3076 Alcoa HWY Alcoa TN 37701, 8**-9**-3***! This 2019 Nissan Pathfinder SL is loaded with the follow...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MM0KC602961
    Stock: KC602961A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-19-2025

  • New Listing
    $9,199
    great price
    $5,510 below market
    • 109,000 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Lenoir City Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (228 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Parking sensors
    Close

    Located in Lenoir City, TN / 228 miles away from Columbus, GA

    These vehicles are for public wholesale and are sold ''AS-IS/NO WARRANTY'' ONLY. We offer no opinion as to any quality, defects, or merchantability of...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2AN0LC596819
    Stock: TC596819
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-26-2025

  • $7,995
    great price
    $2,453 below market
    • 127,106 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 25 Hwy MPG
    • LGM Motors (106 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Snellville, GA / 106 miles away from Columbus, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (19 City/25 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MM7EC735417
    Stock: 735417
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 111,234 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Max Quality Auto (388 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Parking sensors
    Close

    Located in Baton Rouge, LA / 388 miles away from Columbus, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN2KC602775
    Stock: 2298
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-15-2025

  • New Listing
    • 65,738 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NJ to GA*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Maple Shade, NJ / 756 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MM3KC653354
    Stock: 27366542
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 99,586 miles
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Brian Jones Motorsports Inc. (423 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Danville, VA / 423 miles away from Columbus, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN5KC602934
    Stock: 602934
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-14-2025

  • New Listing
    • 73,767 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 744 miles away from Columbus, GA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MNXKC618366
    Stock: 2003681241
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-29-2025

  • New Listing
    • 56,990 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NJ to GA*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Maple Shade, NJ / 756 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MM0KC653795
    Stock: 27109568
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 62,175 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to GA*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Parking sensors
    Close

    Located in Austin, TX / 769 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN8KC596402
    Stock: 27353258
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 74,300 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from KS to GA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Merriam, KS / 702 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MN9FC682617
    Stock: 27436901
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 149,344 miles
    • Issue reported, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Choice One Auto (499 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 499 miles away from Columbus, GA

    Introducing the sleek and stylish 2015 Nissan Pathfinder S in Magnetic Black! This beauty packs a punch with its powerful 3.5L V6 engine, boasting 260...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MM4FC638998
    Stock: 638998
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-29-2025

    • 118,676 miles
    • Insurance loss reported, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • LA 12 Motors (423 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Raleigh, NC / 423 miles away from Columbus, GA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1AR2MM7FC690920
    Stock: 0334
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-05-2024

    • 91,132 miles
    • 2 accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to GA*
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 640 miles away from Columbus, GA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN3KC607550
    Stock: 27353177
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 105,274 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 20 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Used Cars of SWFL (452 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Fort Myers, FL / 452 miles away from Columbus, GA

    Used Cars of SWFL should be your last stop for any vehicle buying. With Florida's Lowest Guaranteed Prices and Guaranteed Financing on all vehicles wh...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 5N1DR2MN3KC643478
    Stock: 3563
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-22-2025

Showing 757 - 777 out of 2,847 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Nissan Pathfinder

Read recent reviews for the Nissan Pathfinder
Overall Consumer Rating
4.1 out of 5 stars51 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 51 reviews
  • 5 star
    (59%)
  • 4 star
    (16%)
  • 3 star
    (8%)
  • 2 star
    (12%)
  • 1 star
    (6%)
5 out of 5 stars

Great features; great price; very nice ride!

Graydon, 02/25/2017
2017 Nissan Pathfinder SL 4dr SUV 4WD (3.5L 6cyl CVT)
We were looking for a three row SUV that has good gas mileage, towing capacity, and value. The final two that I considered were the Pathfinder SL with the Tech package and the Toyota Highlander XLE trim. These have similar MSRPs to they should be comparable. The Toyota puts their advanced safety features (lane departure, collision mitigation, etc) on all trim levels. Another good thing … about the Toyota was its auto stop/start feature. It was hard to notice when the car shut itself off and started back up again. On the other hand, Nissan gives you a lot more for the price. Some of the features on the Pathfinder that were not on the similarly priced Highlander were the around view monitor (my favorite feature); heated second row seats; heated side mirrors; heated steering wheel; remote start; a premium Bose sound system; driver seat position memory. Another cool feature on the Pathfinder is that when you shut off the car, the seats moved back for ease of exit. When you start it back up again, the seats move into position. A couple of small negatives. The Pathfinder has a lot of power, very quick from a stop light. However, the driving "feel" isn't like the Mazda CX9. They supposedly stiffened the suspensions, but the ride still feels very soft to me (some folks might prefer this). Also, it is a big car, so definite body roll around the corners. So its not going to feel like a sports car, but if you are looking for a good three row SUV, this is a good choice. Also, we were able to get this car for around 3K lower than the Toyota dealer was willing to go. Really loving this car!
Report abuse

Used 2015 Nissan Pathfinder in Columbus, GA Values

Estimated values
2015 Nissan Pathfinder S 4dr SUV 4WD (3.5L 6cyl CVT) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$5,719$8,904$10,988
Clean$5,452$8,469$10,428
Average$5,007$7,744$9,495
Rough$4,429$6,802$8,281

The average list price of a used 2015 Nissan Pathfinder in Columbus, Georgia is $16,739. The average mileage on a used Nissan Pathfinder 2015 for sale in Columbus, Georgia is 91,489. Based on the average mileage of 91,489 for used 2015 Nissan Pathfinder for sale in Columbus, GA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Nissan Pathfinder 2015 in Columbus, Georgia to be $5,007.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.