Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
7,262 listings
  • Price Drop
    $7,999
    great price
    $4,431 below market
    • 123,299 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • CarHub (368 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 368 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADCXGH543255
    Stock: 543255
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $6,130
    great price
    $3,628 below market
    • 165,267 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Xride Cars (404 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Raleigh, NC / 404 miles away from Dayton, OH

    2016 Subaru Forester 2.5i Limited Sport Utility 4D A Versatile SUV with Performance and ComfortOffered by Xride Cars 1733 Capital Blvd Raleigh NC 2760...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAKC6GH418403
    Stock: CRN-418403
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $12,762
    great price
    $1,544 below market
    • 109,782 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 23 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Performance Kings Honda (30 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 30 miles away from Dayton, OH

    This *2016 Subaru Forester 2.0XT Touring* is loaded with convenient features like: AWD, Moonroof, Backup Camera, Leather, Heated Seats, Power Liftgate...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (23 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJGVC4GH564782
    Stock: GH564782
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-14-2025

  • $14,450
    fair price
    $4 below market
    • 90,974 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Frederick Subaru (355 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Frederick, MD / 355 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAHC8GH409001
    Stock: S18550A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-23-2025

  • Price Drop
    $14,869
    good price
    $1,304 below market
    • 71,212 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Walt Sweeney Ford (47 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 47 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAHC2GH482400
    Stock: GH482400
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-11-2025

  • $10,400
    good price
    $2,120 below market
    • 119,040 miles
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • ZedMotors (404 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Raleigh, NC / 404 miles away from Dayton, OH

    !!!WARRANTY AVAILABLE!!! Clean and well maintained vehicle Drives great Please visit our website at WWW.ZEDMOTORSNC.COM for a detailed Carfax report T...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADC4GH514180
    Stock: 514180
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 01-09-2025

  • $15,356
    fair price
    $835 above market
    • 90,366 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • S & H Auto Sales Osceola (171 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Osceola, IN / 171 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADC4GH522336
    Stock: C522336
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-23-2025

  • Price Drop
    $17,850
    fair price
    $15 below market
    • 55,112 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Safford Brown Alexandria Mazda (382 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Alexandria, VA / 382 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAFC3GH449845
    Stock: R298A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-24-2025

  • $14,990
    good price
    $1,134 below market
    • 86,752 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 23 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Southern Hyundai Newport News (448 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Newport News, VA / 448 miles away from Dayton, OH

    Clean CARFAX. Odometer is 19350 miles below market average!Quartz Blue Pearl 2016 Subaru Forester 2.0XT Touring AWD Lineartronic CVT 2.0L 4-Cylinder...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (23 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJGXC8GH414686
    Stock: E5P890001U
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-14-2025

  • $12,191
    good price
    $1,131 below market
    • 91,565 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Ken Ganley Subaru Wickliffe (191 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Wickliffe, OH / 191 miles away from Dayton, OH

    Ganley Subaru East offers some of the best values in the market. We have a huge selection of new and used Subaru vehicles as well as an extensive Used...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAGC7GH436112
    Stock: 32950T
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-31-2025

  • Price Drop
    $15,000
    fair price
    $296 below market
    • 87,572 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Safford Brown Subaru Manassas (363 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Manassas, VA / 363 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAFCXGH450264
    Stock: H409820A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-23-2025

  • Price Drop
    $8,415
    fair price
    $116 below market
    • 196,027 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • CarsFor15K.com (341 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Plymouth, WI / 341 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADCXGH454236
    Stock: G715032
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-31-2025

  • $10,995
    good price
    $779 below market
    • 122,122 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Good Budget Auto (33 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Fairfield, OH / 33 miles away from Dayton, OH

    GOOD BUDGET AUTO4551 DIXIE HWY, FAIRFIELD, OH 45014PHONE# +1 (513) 997-7779EMAIL: INFO@GOODBUDGETAUTO.COMWEBSITE: goodbudgetauto.comFINANCING AND SPEC...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAKC4GH487980
    Stock: 487980
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $19,590
    good price
    $384 below market
    • 52,641 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 23 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Charlotte (359 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 359 miles away from Dayton, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (23 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJGVC0GH402969
    Stock: 2003399142
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 01-14-2025

  • $15,995
    fair price
    $355 above market
    • 80,311 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Taylor Hyundai of Findlay (99 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Findlay, OH / 99 miles away from Dayton, OH

    EquipmentProtect this Subaru Forester from unwanted accidents with a cutting edge backup camera system. Bluetooth technology is built into thi...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAHC7GH539142
    Stock: A22407A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-30-2025

  • Price Drop
    $14,990
    fair price
    $884 above market
    • 84,942 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Gerald Subaru of North Aurora (265 mi away)
    • Five Star Dealer
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in North Aurora, IL / 265 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJABC7GH546679
    Stock: 96654A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-28-2025

  • $10,995
    good price
    $826 below market
    • 123,020 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Toyota Direct (70 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 70 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJAHC9GH489263
    Stock: GH489263
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-08-2025

  • $13,495
    fair price
    $727 above market
    • 118,129 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Brilliance Subaru (274 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Elgin, IL / 274 miles away from Dayton, OH

    Head on down to Brilliance Subaru today to check out this extra clean, non-smokers, accident free 2016 Subaru Forester Premium featuring Subaru's lege...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADC6GH407821
    Stock: S250657A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-31-2025

  • $16,872
    fair price
    $521 below market
    • 71,955 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • W & L Subaru (396 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Northumberland, PA / 396 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADC9GH548513
    Stock: 28847A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-03-2025

  • $15,999
    fair price
    $52 below market
    • 56,815 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Steve Moyer Subaru (435 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Leesport, PA / 435 miles away from Dayton, OH

    Introducing the 2016 Subaru Forester! It offers the latest in technological innovation and style. Subaru infused the interior with top shelf amenities...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJADC7GH450953
    Stock: 1N250821A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-31-2025

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    $13,500
    fair price
    $437 below market
    • 113,135 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 24 City / 32 Hwy MPG
    • Beyer Volvo Cars Dulles (360 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Sterling, VA / 360 miles away from Dayton, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (24 City/32 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2SJARC5GH529613
    Stock: T17594K
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-07-2025

Showing 1 - 21 out of 7,262 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Subaru Forester

Read recent reviews for the Subaru Forester
Overall Consumer Rating
4 out of 5 stars174 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 174 reviews
  • 5 star
    (50%)
  • 4 star
    (25%)
  • 3 star
    (10%)
  • 2 star
    (9%)
  • 1 star
    (6%)
5 out of 5 stars

Five Star Car!

Nikki R., 03/31/2016
2016 Subaru Forester 2.5i Premium PZEV 4dr SUV AWD (2.5L 4cyl CVT)
Update: I still do love the car, however the A/C system leaves much to be desired. I often have to crank it up to 3 or 4 in the summer to cool down which is LOUD and still isn’t even that great. If you have it on head / feet mood, it tends to be inadequate. Would be tough for someone living in a really hot or cold climate. I absolutely love my new Subaru Forester. I will be driving … this car until I just can't drive it anymore. I've been shopping for a crossover SUV for about a month now. I bought my Forester two days ago after much hesitancy. EVERYONE in the state of Oregon drives a Subaru and I didn't want to be just another Subaru driver. Sometimes it's fun to stand out! But now that I've owned one, I totally get the hype. The car handles well, it's fun to drive and so far it has been good on gas. I've done mainly city driving and it's been between 25 - 30 mpg. There are a lot of choices in the world of crossover SUVs, and I feel as though I drove most of them. This one (for me) had the best driving experience and the best value by far. The mid-trim level (Premium) gets you a lot (heated seats, a beautiful moonroof) and I'm happy that I stepped up to it. If you're in the throes of crossover suv car selection like I was for a month, give the Forester a try. Some like it, some don't but the quality, value and driving experience are really top notch. Update: 3/31/17: The air-conditioning system leaves a bit to be desired. Even if you have it going on full blast it's not really that adequate, especially on a very hot day. The same goes for the heat. I often need to turn on my heated seats, and the heat to stay warm when it's cold out.
Report abuse

Used 2016 Subaru Forester in Dayton, OH Values

Estimated values
2016 Subaru Forester 2.5i Premium PZEV 4dr SUV AWD (2.5L 4cyl CVT) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$8,798$11,499$13,430
Clean$8,370$10,912$12,712
Average$7,657$9,933$11,515
Rough$6,730$8,661$9,959

The average list price of a used 2016 Subaru Forester in Dayton, Ohio is $13,469. The average mileage on a used Subaru Forester 2016 for sale in Dayton, Ohio is 100,478. Based on the average mileage of 100,478 for used 2016 Subaru Forester for sale in Dayton, OH and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Subaru Forester 2016 in Dayton, Ohio to be $7,657.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.