Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
552 listings
  • $11,995
    fair price
    $139 above market
    • 145,330 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Freedom Auto Sales (17 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Chantilly, VA / 17 miles away from Manassas, VA

    ****All Freedom Auto Sales Vehicles Comes with a 6 months, 6000 miles warranty on engine and transmission, drive axles, Roadside assistance, rental ca...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJE71CR188081
    Stock: 188081
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-07-2025

  • $12,495
    fair price
    $333 below market
    • 141,165 miles
    • 2 accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Mazari Motors of Tysons Corner (20 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Vienna, VA / 20 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKHE72CR260348
    Stock: 1GNSKH
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-20-2025

  • $6,977
    fair price
    $298 above market
    • 250,650 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Off Lease Motors (12 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 12 miles away from Manassas, VA

    English & Spanish Speaking?? Hablamos Español We Sell BRAND NEW & Used! Financiamos a Todos ? <--Click Para Aplicar Ahora (Click To Apply No...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3GNFK16368G301561
    Stock: 8G301561
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 138,227 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 20 Hwy MPG
    • ZaZa Moto (12 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 12 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/20 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNFC16088R257064
    Stock: SM2970
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-13-2025

  • Advertisement
    Also Consider

    7 Offers Nearby

    2025 Suburban
    $62,000
    starting MSRP
    • 6 Colors
    • 6 Trims
    • 1 Package
    View Offers 
    *The Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price excludes destination freight charge, tax, title, license, dealer fees and optional equipment. Click here to see all Chevrolet vehicles' destination freight charges. Dealer sets the final price.
  • New Listing
    $8,996
    great price
    $5,281 below market
    • 197,395 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 16 City / 23 Hwy MPG
    • CarPlug (20 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Fredericksburg, VA / 20 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSCKKC8FR256496
    Stock: AC4205
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $9,995
    great price
    $3,224 below market
    • 207,976 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Mega Auto Outlet (13 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 13 miles away from Manassas, VA

    2015 CHEVROLET SUBURBAN 4 WHEEL DRIVE with powerful 5.3L V8 ECOTEC3 WITH ACTIVE FUEL MANAGEMENT engine and driven only 207976 miles! Fully loaded and ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKKC0FR219543
    Stock: MAO4805
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $7,549
    great price
    $2,289 below market
    • 199,439 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Select Auto Trading (20 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Fredericksburg, VA / 20 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJE75DR276441
    Stock: 276441
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-13-2025

    • 144,656 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Bluestone Motors (81 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Harrisonburg, VA / 81 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3GNFK16398G306253
    Stock: P5562
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-16-2025

  • Advertisement
    Also Consider

    7 Offers Nearby

    2025 Suburban
    $62,000
    starting MSRP
    • 6 Colors
    • 6 Trims
    • 1 Package
    View Offers 
    *The Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price excludes destination freight charge, tax, title, license, dealer fees and optional equipment. Click here to see all Chevrolet vehicles' destination freight charges. Dealer sets the final price.
  • $15,433
    good price
    $2,783 below market
    • 136,334 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Pro Auto Expo (13 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 13 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJKC4FR695448
    Stock: 695448
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $11,999
    good price
    $2,766 below market
    • 121,641 miles
    • 3 accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 9 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Nationwide Motors (24 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Fredericksburg, VA / 24 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKHE7XDR202327
    Stock: 202327
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-20-2025

  • $17,995
    good price
    $1,404 below market
    • 134,862 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Auto Buying Service (17 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Fairfax, VA / 17 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKKC7FR237425
    Stock: ABS7901
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-07-2025

  • $15,999
    good price
    $2,306 below market
    • 80,903 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Loudoun Used Cars (31 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Leesburg, VA / 31 miles away from Manassas, VA

    For sale is a 2013 Chevrolet Suburban 4x4 with only 80K original miles a rare find with low mileage and rugged reliability! This 1-owner SUV is powere...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKHE79DR275995
    Stock: 275995
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-05-2025

  • Advertisement
    Also Consider

    7 Offers Nearby

    2025 Suburban
    $62,000
    starting MSRP
    • 6 Colors
    • 6 Trims
    • 1 Package
    View Offers 
    *The Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price excludes destination freight charge, tax, title, license, dealer fees and optional equipment. Click here to see all Chevrolet vehicles' destination freight charges. Dealer sets the final price.
  • $16,786
    good price
    $1,968 below market
    • 119,336 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Royal Auto Club (20 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Sterling, VA / 20 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJKC7FR146763
    Stock: SAI3020
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $16,496
    fair price
    $174 above market
    • 158,368 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Cars2us Of Woodbridge (9 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Woodbridge, VA / 9 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKKC8FR172455
    Stock: CU6488
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $7,990
    fair price
    $881 above market
    • 167,702 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 7 Seats, 14 City / 19 Hwy MPG
    • Krasniqi Auto Sales (26 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Third-row seating
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in La Plata, MD / 26 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/19 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3GNFK16337G243214
    Stock: 243214
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-06-2025

  • $16,990
    fair price
    $362 above market
    • 123,045 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Jarboe Motors (66 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Westminster, MD / 66 miles away from Manassas, VA

    2013 Chevrolet Surburban LTZ 4x4 -CLEAN! -LOADED UP! -GOOD MILES! *BUY WITH CONFIDENCE* *4.9 STAR RATING* *MARYLAND STATE INSPECTED* *WARRANTY* We off...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKE75DR110670
    Stock: 110670
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-04-2025

  • Advertisement
    Also Consider

    7 Offers Nearby

    2025 Suburban
    $62,000
    starting MSRP
    • 6 Colors
    • 6 Trims
    • 1 Package
    View Offers 
    *The Manufacturer's Suggested Retail Price excludes destination freight charge, tax, title, license, dealer fees and optional equipment. Click here to see all Chevrolet vehicles' destination freight charges. Dealer sets the final price.
  • $22,995
    fair price
    $94 below market
    • 101,981 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • InTouch Auto Outlet (30 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Spotsylvania Courthouse, VA / 30 miles away from Manassas, VA

    *** SUN ENTERTAINMENT & DESTINATIONS PACKAGE, POWER TILT/SLIDING SUNROOF, REAR SEAT DVD PLAYER, CONSISTENT SERVICE RECORDS REPORTED ON CARFAX ***20 In...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKKCXFR147766
    Stock: A5064
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 137,089 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Eastern Auto Traders (47 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Jessup, MD / 47 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKKE7XDR158651
    Stock: A03
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-04-2025

    • 134,398 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 8 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • TruckMax (44 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Laurel, MD / 44 miles away from Manassas, VA

    2013 Chevrolet Suburban LT 4X4 Third row all leather Body Style SUV MPG City/Hwy 15/21 Transmission Automatic Engine 8 Cyl Read More

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJE78DR280497
    Stock: 280497
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-28-2024

  • New Listing
    • 102,452 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 21 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 1,156 miles away from Manassas, VA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    17 Combined MPG (15 City/21 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSCKE01DR335720
    Stock: 2003724204
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-08-2025

  • New Listing
    $11,795
    great price
    $6,313 below market
    • 176,109 miles
    • 7 Seats, 15 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Carplug of Alexandria (21 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Alexandria, VA / 21 miles away from Manassas, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (15 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1GNSKJKC4GR131106
    Stock: COA1107
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 22 - 42 out of 552 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Chevrolet Suburban

Read recent reviews for the Chevrolet Suburban
Overall Consumer Rating
4.4 out of 5 stars29 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 29 reviews
  • 5 star
    (62%)
  • 4 star
    (21%)
  • 3 star
    (17%)
  • 2 star
    (0%)
  • 1 star
    (0%)
5 out of 5 stars

My first Chevrolet Suburban LT

Phil, 10/14/2010
2010 Chevrolet Suburban LT 1500 4dr SUV (5.3L 8cyl 6A)
Great on long distance traveling. During summer we drove about 600 miles comfortably over Donner Pass and the Grapevine (both ways)without stopping for gasoline or needing a break. Outside temperature ranged from 80 (Reno) to 113 degrees (Bakersfield), but inside it was about 72. Still showing 19.2 mpg with mix of city/rural driving, but I am usually light on the gas pedal except when … climbing hills. Up to now I am very happy with purchase and ability to fit in lots of people and infant seats. Easy access to the 3rd row and the large cargo area for carrying weekly groceries or bulky items. I think a full sized mattress would fit with rear seat removed and 2nd row folded. XM radio
Report abuse

Used 2012 Chevrolet Suburban in Manassas, VA Values

Estimated values
2012 Chevrolet Suburban LT 1500 4dr SUV 4WD (5.3L 8cyl 6A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$5,722$8,213$9,652
Clean$5,467$7,805$9,126
Average$5,041$7,125$8,248
Rough$4,488$6,241$7,107

The average list price of a used 2012 Chevrolet Suburban in Manassas, Virginia is $14,117. The average mileage on a used Chevrolet Suburban 2012 for sale in Manassas, Virginia is 148,527. Based on the average mileage of 148,527 for used 2012 Chevrolet Suburban for sale in Manassas, VA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Chevrolet Suburban 2012 in Manassas, Virginia to be $5,041.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Location

Search radius100 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.