Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
55 listings
  • Price Drop
    • 43,211 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax Jacksonville (393 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Jacksonville, FL / 393 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX7H0184693
    Stock: 27566491
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 55,235 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Automotive Connection (300 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Fairfield, OH / 300 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: Yes

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AJ1RS8H0215880
    Stock: 215880
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-06-2025

  • Price Drop
    $19,591
    fair price
    $134 below market
    • 39,901 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Nick Mayer Lincoln Westlake (480 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Westlake, OH / 480 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    Cold Weather Package, Heated Driver & Front Passenger Seats, Heated Steering Wheel Rim, Navigation System, Power Sunroof. Clean CARFAX.Red Obsession T...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX9G0193040
    Stock: 4847P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-10-2025

  • New Listing
    $24,590
    fair price
    $77 below market
    • 29,675 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Washington DC (498 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Washington, DC / 498 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AF1RX7J0139037
    Stock: 2003869913
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-24-2025

  • New Listing
    $20,990
    fair price
    $1,865 above market
    • 46,686 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Columbus (363 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 363 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RXXG0180104
    Stock: 2003920248
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-26-2025

  • $18,995
    fair price
    $1,323 above market
    • 61,536 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • City Auto Memphis (260 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Memphis, TN / 260 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    Vehicle DetailsDiscover the perfect blend of luxury, performance, and style with this stunning 2016 Cadillac ATS Luxury Collection AWD! Design...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX0G0132031
    Stock: 509959
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-06-2025

  • New Listing
    • 98,289 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Cincinnati (284 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 284 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX4J0144856
    Stock: 2003824418
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-16-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 78,030 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Richmond (464 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 464 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AK1RS8J0126751
    Stock: 2003886250
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-11-2025

  • $14,900
    fair price
    $803 below market
    • 33,356 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • M&J Auto Sales and Service (392 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Jacksonville, FL / 392 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX4G0110232
    Stock: 0110232
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 58,210 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Tampa, FL / 517 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AB1RXXH0173172
    Stock: 2003862363
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-03-2025

    • 129,936 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • A-Plus Auto Sales (325 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Tallahassee, FL / 325 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    Visit A-Plus Auto Sales online at aplusautofl.com to see more pictures of this vehicle or call us at 8**-7**-4*** today to schedule your test driv...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RXXH0207002
    Stock: 2908
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-06-2025

    • 51,565 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Selective Motors (334 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 334 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AE1RS9H0173482
    Stock: 3289
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-18-2025

    • 54,096 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Chicago Auto Place (490 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Downers Grove, IL / 490 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    Thank you for visiting another one of Chicago Auto Place's exclusive listings! CALL US NOW FOR A FREE QUOTE 630-422-1122 FOR MORE PHOTOS VISIT WWW.CHI...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AG1RX4F0125990
    Stock: H9050
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-28-2025

    • 93,200 miles
    • Insurance loss reported, 5 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 6cyl automatic
    • JNM Motors (493 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Melrose Park, IL / 493 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    Visit JNM Motors Inc online at www.jnmmotorsinc.com to see more pictures of this vehicle or call us at 6**-8**-0*** today to schedule your test drive.

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AJ1RS3H0196395
    Stock: 1626
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 10-09-2024

  • New Listing
    • 171,011 miles
    • 4 accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Southtowne Chevrolet Buick GMC (118 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Newnan, GA / 118 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    **THIS VEHICLE IS BEING SOLD AS-IS**SAFETY INSPECTION ONLY**LOCAL TRADE-IN, **REAR BACKUP CAMERA, **BLUETOOTH, **NAVIGATION, **BOSE SURROUND SOUND, **...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (18 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AL1R32F0112597
    Stock: 2E20231C
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-31-2025

  • Price Drop
    Stock photo**
    • 65,105 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Coughlin Marysville GM (374 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Marysville, OH / 374 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    *** CALL OR EMAIL US TODAY FOR YOUR SPECIAL ONLINE DISCOUNT PRICE *** *** THIS VEHICLE IS LOCATED AT COUGHLIN GM OF MARYSVILLE ***ATS 2.0L Turbo Luxur...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AB1RX4H0157601
    Stock: Z07428A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-21-2025

  • New Listing
    • 62,203 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Karas Auto Sales (343 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Sanford, NC / 343 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AF1RX5K0124960
    Stock: 124960
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-17-2025

  • $7,995
    fair price
    $239 above market
    • 175,249 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Schererville Auto Sales (462 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Schererville, IN / 462 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX9F0116313
    Stock: LO1
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $12,990
    good price
    $2,138 below market
    • 82,080 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Coughlin Nissan (377 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Heath, OH / 377 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    COUGHLIN NISSAN IS ALL ABOUT CUSTOMER SERVICE AND CUSTOMER SATISFACTION. PLEASE LET US KNOW HOW TO MAKE THE PROCESS EASY FOR YOU! WE CAN OFFER THE LOW...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX8G0124503
    Stock: NN8628A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-30-2025

  • $24,995
    fair price
    $77 above market
    • 58,803 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Payton Place Auto Group (272 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Seymour, IN / 272 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AF1RX0J0135413
    Stock: 135413
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-24-2025

  • Price Drop
    $19,394
    fair price
    $295 above market
    • 34,803 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Serpentini of Willoughby Hills (497 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Willoughby Hills, OH / 497 miles away from Chattanooga, TN

    *AWD*SUNROOF*REAR CROSS TRAFFIC ALERT*LANE CHANGE ALERT*LANE KEEP ASSISTRecent Arrival! 2018 Black Raven Cadillac ATS 2.0L Turbo Luxury 2.0L Turbo I4 ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AF1RXXJ0178432
    Stock: 11276P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-08-2025

Showing 1 - 21 out of 55 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Cadillac ATS Coupe

Read recent reviews for the Cadillac ATS Coupe
Overall Consumer Rating
4.2 out of 5 stars15 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 15 reviews
  • 5 star
    (27%)
  • 4 star
    (67%)
  • 3 star
    (7%)
  • 2 star
    (0%)
  • 1 star
    (0%)
4 out of 5 stars

eye catching look, no more granpa cadillac

Ponco, 11/16/2017
2016 Cadillac ATS Coupe Luxury 2dr Coupe AWD (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 8A)
I've own a coupe since the day I first purchased my vehicle. Cadillac ATS coupe is a real upgrade for me from my beloved Honda Accord Coupe that has been discontinued from 2018 model. The overall look is just great and I got so much compliment from my neighbors. There some pros I'd like to state; a) there are not many around and I rarely see the same model that I drive (see sedans but … not coupe), b) distinctive styling and ground crawling design, c) high quality material inside, d) CUE is not as bad as the critics have reviewed, e) great power from 2.0T engine, f) smooth 8AT shifting. I must also mention some cons and they are; a) front seats do not recline fully, b) lane departure warning, blind spot warning, front collision alerts do not come with Lux model unless it is chosen. My 2013 Honda Accord came with all of them as standard features, e) gas mileage is poor. average is around 22, max. 33. my 3.5L V6 accord coupe recorded max 36 highway, 27-28 normal, f) poor traction on OEM Continental run flat tires. Got snowy day recently and the grip was poor. I expected better and now am worried about coming snow season, g) it would be nice if the interior noise was suppressed since this is a luxury brand coupe. Overall I am very happy with this vehicle. It's exciting to drive.
Report abuse

Used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe in Chattanooga, TN Values

Estimated values
2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe Luxury 2dr Coupe AWD (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 8A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$14,971$16,503$17,676
Clean$14,494$15,961$17,078
Average$13,699$15,057$16,082
Rough$12,665$13,883$14,786

The average list price of a used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe in Chattanooga, Tennessee is $18,168. The average mileage on a used Cadillac ATS Coupe 2017 for sale in Chattanooga, Tennessee is 72,485. Based on the average mileage of 72,485 for used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe for sale in Chattanooga, TN and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Cadillac ATS Coupe 2017 in Chattanooga, Tennessee to be $13,699.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.