Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
302 listings

Save with Porsche Taycan rebates
Check your savings potential before you buy

  • Price Drop
    $57,800
    fair price
    $112 above market
    • 22,286 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 235 - 244 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Crown Acura Richmond (134 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 134 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    RECALL NOTICE: Some vehicles offered for sale may be subject to unrepaired manufacturer safety recalls. To determine the recall status of a vehicle, v...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y16NSA13148
    Stock: CAR240681A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-16-2025

  • $61,962
    fair price
    $772 above market
    • 14,954 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 236 - 244 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Minneapolis, MN / 876 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,Low Mileage,Green Vehicle,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Hands-Free Liftgate,Heated Seats,Keyless St...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y19NSA15881
    Stock: NSA15881M
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $72,800
    fair price
    $3,292 above market
    • 23,906 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 233 - 244 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Craig and Landreth Cars (318 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Louisville, KY / 318 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    We're Kentuckiana's premier pre-owned dealership! Having been in business for nearly 50 years, we've built our reputation providing the cleanest vehic...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y10NSA45770
    Stock: D46763A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 15,558 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 240 - 251 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Minneapolis, MN / 876 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Low Mileage,Rare Find,Green Vehicle,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Hands-Free Liftgat...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y17NSA45314
    Stock: NSA45314M
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    Photos not available
    $63,372
    fair price
    $1,397 below market
    • 26,592 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 200 mi range
    • Porsche Atlanta Perimeter (337 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Atlanta, GA / 337 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    SportDesign Package in High Gloss BlackPower Folding Exterior MirrorsWindow Trim in High Gloss BlackDoor Handles in High Gloss BlackDeletion of Model ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y16NSA15742
    Stock: P35822
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-23-2025

    • 9,701 miles
    • Lemon reported, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 227 - 238 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Kingstowne Motorcars (167 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Manassas, VA / 167 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    ***BUY WITH CONFIDENCE, RATED *TOP 10 DEALER IN VIRGINIA* WOW RARE MSRP $217K / FULL BODY PPF / SPORT DESIGN PKG CARBON FIBER / NIGHT VISION / PREM...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: Yes

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y16NSA54583
    Stock: KTM6966
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $68,490
    fair price
    $250 below market
    • 18,399 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 229 - 238 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Autoplex Atlanta (328 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Duluth, GA / 328 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Vehicle Overview 2022 Porsche Taycan Cross Turismo 4 Red AWD 2-Speed Automatic Electric Motor 14-Way Power Seats w/Memory Package, Ambient Lighting, B...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0BA2Y14NSA67441
    Stock: NSA67441
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-07-2025

  • $97,995
    fair price
    $1,582 above market
    • 27,335 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 242 - 251 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Paul Miller Porsche (386 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Parsippany, NJ / 386 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    *** 100% Online Purchase Available ***Certified. Jet Black Metallic 2024 Porsche Taycan 4S AWD 2-Speed Automatic Electric MotorPorsche Approved Certif...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y17RSA35789
    Stock: I9578A
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 06-11-2025

  • New Listing
    $73,995
    fair price
    $2,265 above market
    • 22,494 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 230 - 239 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Manhattan Motorcars (400 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in New York, NY / 400 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival! Thank you for your interest in another Manhattan Motorcars Pre Owned vehicle!Certified. Carrara White Metallic 2022 Porsche Taycan Cro...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0BA2Y15NSA67285
    Stock: PO6562
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-14-2025

  • $97,985
    fair price
    $2,795 above market
    • 26,145 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 242 - 251 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Gravity Autos Sandy Springs (338 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Atlanta, GA / 338 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival!**NEW ARRIVAL**

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y19RSA35051
    Stock: A35051
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-03-2025

  • New Listing
    $76,500
    fair price
    $145 above market
    • 29,502 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 236 - 245 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • New Country Porsche of Greenwich (426 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Greenwich, CT / 426 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Thank you for your interest in a Porsche Greenwich preowned vehicle! Please make sure to inquire with us about how to extend the Porsche CPO warranty ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y10NSA44702
    Stock: T14547
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 07-24-2025

    • 17,274 miles
    • Lemon reported, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 236 - 245 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • BMVW Auto Sales (364 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Union City, GA / 364 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    NO DEALER FEES, NO COMMISSION SALES!!! MANUFACTURER BUYBACK, LOW MILEAGE, runs and looks great, Interior is clean, charge cable package included. Stor...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: Yes

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y16NSA16826
    Stock: A16826
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-05-2024

  • $63,055
    fair price
    $2,176 above market
    • 41,580 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 226 - 238 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Maserati of Monmouth (378 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Ocean Township, NJ / 378 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y17LSA72846
    Stock: WP0AC2Y17LSA72846
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-10-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 29,218 miles
    • Lemon reported, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 214 - 223 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • ALM Gwinnett (328 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Duluth, GA / 328 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    $202,330 MSRP..TURBO S..PREM PACKAGE..ADAPTIVE CRUISE..PANORAMIC..NAVIGATION..BACKUP CAMERA..BLIND SPOT..LANE DEPART..LANE KEEP ASSIST..HEATED SEATS.....

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: Yes

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y11LSA72499
    Stock: LSA72499
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-05-2025

  • New Listing
    $49,590
    fair price
    $262 above market
    • 76,297 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 221 - 229 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Carvana - Birmingham (465 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Birmingham, AL / 465 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y1XLSA52285
    Stock: 2003901571
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-17-2025

  • Price Drop
    $50,500
    good price
    $2,255 below market
    • 41,510 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 231 - 242 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Auto Gallery Mall of Georgia (316 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Bufurd, GA / 316 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Priced below KBB Fair Purchase Price!USB PORT, PUSH BUTTON START, ONE OWNER, NAVIGATION, BLUE TOOTH, BACK UP CAMERA, 4D Sedan, Electric Motor, 2-Speed...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y14NSA17019
    Stock: M7375PRTL
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-17-2025

    • 31 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 239 - 248 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Stevenson-Hendrick Honda Wilmington (239 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Wilmington, NC / 239 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    *2024 Porsche Taycan Turbo -- Electrified Performance and Unmatched Luxury*Finished in sleek *Black* with a distinctive *Graphite Blue/Slate Grey Race...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y14RSA52269
    Stock: P11488
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-13-2025

    • 108 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 242 - 250 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Stevenson-Hendrick Honda Wilmington (239 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Wilmington, NC / 239 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    *2024 Porsche Taycan RWD -- Striking in Carmine Red with Premium Equipment & Performance Battery Plus*Command attention in this *2024 Porsche Taycan R...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AA2Y13RSA10729
    Stock: P11460
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-13-2025

  • New Listing
    • 2,969 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 235 - 243 mi est. range
    • Excellent battery score
    • Mercedes-Benz of Easton (251 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 251 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y19RSA52073
    Stock: MN045518A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-13-2025

  • New Listing
    • 32,927 miles
    • Lemon reported, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 220 - 229 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Universal Auto Group (198 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Silver Spring, MD / 198 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Our All-Electric 2020 Porsche Taycan Turbo AWD Sedan with the Premium Package is displayed in Black. Powered by dual Electric Motors and a 93.4kWh Bat...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: Yes

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AC2Y14LSA71878
    Stock: 17730
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-21-2025

    • 8,174 miles
    • No accidents, personal use only
    • 239 - 248 mi est. range
    • Outstanding battery score
    • Hendrick Porsche of Southpoint (110 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Durham, NC / 110 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    NAV, Sunroof, Heated Leather Seats, Satellite Radio, All Wheel Drive, WINDOW TRIM IN HIGH GLOSS BLACK, FRONT MASSAGE SEAT FUNCTION W/FRONT SEAT VENTIL...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WP0AB2Y10RSA36380
    Stock: RP0408
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 05-27-2025

Showing 169 - 189 out of 302 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Porsche Taycan

Read recent reviews for the Porsche Taycan
Overall Consumer Rating
3.7 out of 5 stars37 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 37 reviews
  • 5 star
    (51%)
  • 4 star
    (11%)
  • 3 star
    (14%)
  • 2 star
    (5%)
  • 1 star
    (19%)
1 out of 5 stars

Software issues

Todd Engel, 05/07/2021
2020 Porsche Taycan Turbo 4dr Sedan AWD (electric 2AM)
Be wise!!! Make sure you speak with actual Taycan owners before you buy. This is the inaugural year and there’s been nothing but problems. My car has been in the service garage almost 1/2 of the time I’ve owned it. SOFTWARE issues is all I hear when I inquire as I continue to make my monthly payments without having my car. My brakes failed because of a software issue, my charger … overheated because of the “major” software issue and my car slammed I’m the brakes on its own because the sensor “thought” it saw on oncoming vehicle. This has been a resentful and extremely disappointing purchase. If you’ve ever had your car broken into, you’ll understand the feeling on complete violation of personal property and space! This is exactly how I feel about this vehicle even if they “fix” it and return it to me. Porsche has responded to me with “we’re looking into this matter and will reach out shortly”... as I am without a $175,000.00 Taycan Turbo which I just bought 5 months ago and is sitting at the dealership.
Report abuse

Used 2022 Porsche Taycan in Roanoke, VA Values

Estimated values
2022 Porsche Taycan 4dr Sedan (electric 2A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$45,787$48,858$52,077
Clean$45,075$47,995$51,047
Average$43,888$46,555$49,331
Rough$42,345$44,684$47,100

The average list price of a used 2022 Porsche Taycan in Roanoke, Virginia is $78,102. The average mileage on a used Porsche Taycan 2022 for sale in Roanoke, Virginia is 23,189. Based on the average mileage of 23,189 for used 2022 Porsche Taycan for sale in Roanoke, VA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Porsche Taycan 2022 in Roanoke, Virginia to be $43,888.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

EV Details

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.