Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
124 listings
    • 56,880 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Las Vegas (4 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Las Vegas, NV / 4 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5LU0LR620053
    Stock: 2003798029
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-11-2025

  • Price Drop
    $18,500
    fair price
    $1,781 below market
    • 63,856 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Joshua Tree Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (153 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Yucca Valley, CA / 153 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    *** Blind Spot Monitoring System ***, *** Back Up Camera ***, *** Heated Front Seats ***, *** Leather Seats ***, *** Wireless Bluetooth ***, *** MKZ R...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5D92KR603845
    Stock: RY4588B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-31-2025

  • New Listing
    • 103,614 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 41 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax Palmdale (198 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Palmdale, CA / 198 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    40 Combined MPG (41 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5MU2KR611447
    Stock: 26887565
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 67,046 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 41 City / 38 Hwy MPG
    • Team Lincoln Las Vegas (13 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Las Vegas, NV / 13 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    Local Trade!, Freshly Detailed!, 2 keys available!, 2.0L I4 Atkinson-Cycle iVCT, 14 Speakers, 4-Wheel Disc Brakes, ABS brakes, Adaptive suspension, Ai...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    40 Combined MPG (41 City/38 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5MU6KR633905
    Stock: 93001A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-24-2025

  • New Listing
    • 48,291 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to NV*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Katy, TX / 1,204 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5LU1LR622488
    Stock: 27192695
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $22,280
    great price
    $3,338 below market
    • 77,676 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Verona, NJ / 2,217 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarFax 1-Owner,Rare Find,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Chrome Wheels,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyle...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5FC1LR610666
    Stock: MAJ3665
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $17,998
    fair price
    $535 above market
    • 105,312 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from OH to NV*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 1,756 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5KU3LR611574
    Stock: 27668084
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $20,998
    fair price
    $110 above market
    • 55,247 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, rental vehicle
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from NC to NV*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Winterville, NC / 2,101 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5A92LR603947
    Stock: 27097383
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $23,990
    fair price
    $150 below market
    • 56,887 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Atlanta, GA / 1,739 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5F96LR612434
    Stock: 2003799805
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-13-2025

  • New Listing
    • 57,134 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Chicago, IL / 1,488 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5A98LR613818
    Stock: 2003764044
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-03-2025

    • 7,520 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Sacramento, CA / 382 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5E99LR606886
    Stock: 2003861955
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-10-2025

  • New Listing
    • 16,850 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Kansas City, MO / 1,143 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5E9XLR612695
    Stock: 2003874918
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-15-2025

  • New Listing
    • 86,180 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from GA to NV*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Buford, GA / 1,760 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5A90LR603932
    Stock: 27386601
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 69,030 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 988 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5A96LR602218
    Stock: 2003776637
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-18-2025

  • New Listing
    • 27,951 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Cleveland, OH / 1,827 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5LU4LR610903
    Stock: 2003740940
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-16-2025

  • New Listing
    • 54,630 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • 66 Auto Sales (88 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Kingman, AZ / 88 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    *****INTERNET SHOPPERS: ASK FOR OUR INTERNET SALESMAN KEVIN GRANT JR TO ASSIST YOU WHEN YOU CALL OR ARRIVE AT THE DEALERSHIP AND BECOME ELIGIBLE FOR A...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5KU7LR621864
    Stock: 21313
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-07-2025

    • 69,347 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 20 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 1,070 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5F94LR612657
    Stock: 2003826642
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-17-2025

    • 50,883 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 42 City / 39 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 1,070 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    41 Combined MPG (42 City/39 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5LU9LR610718
    Stock: 2003852798
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-10-2025

  • $24,998
    fair price
    $594 above market
    • 31,733 miles
    • 4 accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 20 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from GA to NV*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Stockbridge, GA / 1,752 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5E91LR605702
    Stock: 26932121
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 74,801 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 20 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Great Falls, MT / 799 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    CarFax 1-Owner,High Demand,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Lan...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5F99LR603095
    Stock: LR603095HT
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $21,590
    fair price
    $1,514 below market
    • 42,296 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 20 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 1,919 miles away from Las Vegas, NV

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 3LN6L5D93KR623585
    Stock: 2003743861
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-20-2025

Showing 1 - 21 out of 124 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Lincoln MKZ

Read recent reviews for the Lincoln MKZ
Overall Consumer Rating
4.5 out of 5 stars33 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 33 reviews
  • 5 star
    (79%)
  • 4 star
    (9%)
  • 3 star
    (0%)
  • 2 star
    (3%)
  • 1 star
    (9%)
5 out of 5 stars

Exceeded expectations

Donald Peters, 03/27/2019
2019 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid Reserve II 4dr Sedan (2.0L 4cyl gas/electric hybrid CVT)
Very good value,Reserve II Hybrid. performance better than expected for a hybrid,all amenities are there for a luxury smaller car.Had 3 Lincoln Mks,s before. Ride quality good,trade off of trunk space for battery is only negative. Have had car for 3 months,so far well pleased even though we always had full sized vehicles before. Have had very good experience with Lincoln brand … since2006.
Report abuse

Used 2020 Lincoln MKZ in Las Vegas, NV Values

Estimated values
2020 Lincoln MKZ Hybrid Reserve 4dr Sedan (2.0L 4cyl gas/electric hybrid CVT) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$18,415$19,917$21,365
Clean$18,007$19,462$20,864
Average$17,326$18,704$20,027
Rough$16,441$17,719$18,940

The average list price of a used 2020 Lincoln MKZ in Las Vegas, Nevada is $23,701. The average mileage on a used Lincoln MKZ 2020 for sale in Las Vegas, Nevada is 58,246. Based on the average mileage of 58,246 for used 2020 Lincoln MKZ for sale in Las Vegas, NV and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Lincoln MKZ 2020 in Las Vegas, Nevada to be $17,326.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.