Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
45 listings
  • New Listing
    • 76,554 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Charlotte (150 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 150 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AD1RS4H0133488
    Stock: 2003695659
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-02-2025

  • $11,795
    fair price
    $40 above market
    • 109,829 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Mega Auto Outlet (163 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Stafford, VA / 163 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    2016 CADILLAC ATS COUPE REAR WHEEL DRIVE with powerful 2.0L TURBO I4 DI DOHC VVT WITH AUTOMATIC engine and driven only 109829 miles! Fully loaded and ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX1G0115162
    Stock: MAO4758
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 73,595 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Wide World BMW (413 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Spring Valley, NY / 413 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival! Cadillac ATS 3.6L Premium Luxury AWD ***PRICE REDUCTION***, ***ACCIDENT FREE CAR FAX***, 3.27 Rear Axle Ratio, 4-Wheel Disc Antilock B...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AG1RS4J0108877
    Stock: U40230B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-09-2025

    • 49,703 miles
    • Frame damage reported, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Lease Return Center (168 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Triangle, VA / 168 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    --SUPER CLEAN AND SHARP LOOKING ATS COUPE--CARFAX CERTIFIED!!!--ONLY 49K MILES--FULLY LOADED!!!!!--GORGEOUS COLOR COMBINATION--LOOKS AND RUNS PERFECT-...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: Yes

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX6G0128327
    Stock: 128237
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 66,737 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Suttle Buick GMC (189 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Newport News, VA / 189 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival! 2018 Cadillac ATS 2.0L Turbo Stellar Black Metallic LEATHER, GM 172 POINT INSPECTION, PANORAMIC ROOF, WIFI, Apple Car Play/Android Aut...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX3J0126400
    Stock: 449681
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-12-2025

    • 77,216 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Myrtle Beach Chevrolet (253 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Myrtle Beach, SC / 253 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival! 22/30 City/Highway MPGClean CARFAX.Crystal White Tricoat 2018 Cadillac ATS 2.0L Turbo Luxury 2D Coupe AWD 2.0L Turbo I4 DI DOHC V...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AF1RX4J0118422
    Stock: 28027B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-08-2025

    • 82,540 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • McCluskey Chevrolet (275 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 275 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Call McCluskey Chevrolet at 513-741-1111 to schedule your Free 48 Hour Test Drive.MCCLUSKEY CHEVROLET'S FREE LIFETIME MECHANICAL WARRANTY Unlimited ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX9G0171247
    Stock: A56490HA
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-13-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 48,847 miles
    • No accidents, 5 owners, personal use only
    • 6cyl automatic
    • EchoPark Automotive Nashville (387 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Nashville, TN / 387 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    At EchoPark, it’s all about offering you options for a happy experience. We have thousands of new-to-you makes and models that range from sedans to tr...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AC1R35F0109418
    Stock: YF0109418
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-07-2025

    • 88,252 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Noblesville Imports (375 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Noblesville, IN / 375 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (18 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AM1R3XF0137714
    Stock: 137714
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-10-2025

    • 89,238 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Action Auto Sales of Wendell (133 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Wendell, NC / 133 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    We specialize in selling top-quality cars that are thoroughly inspected, meticulously maintained, and ready to deliver exceptional performance and rel...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AE1RS8H0201997
    Stock: 201997-K83
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-06-2025

    • 27,737 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Spokane, WA / 2,016 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Low Mileage,High Demand,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Bluetooth,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Leather Seats,Navigation System,Premiu...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AB1RXXH0212648
    Stock: 12648CC
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 66,184 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Ken Ganley Subaru Wickliffe (310 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Wickliffe, OH / 310 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Ganley Subaru East offers some of the best values in the market. We have a huge selection of new and used Subaru vehicles as well as an extensive Used...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AE1RX5K0106526
    Stock: 32062PA
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-21-2025

    • 83,266 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Indy Luxury Motorsports (372 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 372 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    ** CLEAN CARFAX REPORT ** 31 HIGHWAY MPG ** 2.0L ** 4 CYLINDER ** 16 SERVICE HISTORY RECORDS ** SUNROOF ** LEATHER ** HEATED SEATS ** HEATED STEERING ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AB1RX2H0115136
    Stock: 7735-SJR
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-11-2025

  • New Listing
    • 52,390 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax Lexington (251 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Lexington, KY / 251 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AG1RX2F0116298
    Stock: 26978574
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 102,413 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Prime Time Auto Financing (398 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Redford, MI / 398 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AG1RX6H0134340
    Stock: 134340
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 84,572 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • J&M Automotive (469 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Naugatuck, CT / 469 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AG1RX6H0184462
    Stock: 1784462
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 75,568 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 6cyl automatic
    • Magic City Motorcars (274 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Barberton, OH / 274 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Magic City Motorcars Sales 993 Wooster Rd W Barberton, OH 44203 3**-8**-7*** Step into luxury and performance with this stunning 2017 White Cadillac A...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AK1RS2H0124889
    Stock: 2502065
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 01-14-2025

  • New Listing
    • 27,071 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Columbus (250 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 250 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX6K0130216
    Stock: 2003663764
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-22-2025

    • 64,397 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Amp Auto Sales (253 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Galloway, OH / 253 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    2017 Cadillac ATS 2.0L Turbo Luxury Sedan Sophistication Meets Performance 1G6AB1RX4H0157601 Available Now at AMP Auto Sales LLC Columbus, OH Mileage:...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AB1RX4H0157601
    Stock: 157601
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-18-2025

    • 37,123 miles
    • Frame damage reported, 4 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Dana Ford Lincoln (385 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Staten Island, NY / 385 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    Recent Arrival! Clean CARFAX. 2017 Cadillac ATS 2.0L Turbo Luxury, Ford Blue Certified, *Fully detailed*, *Fresh oil change*, New brakes!, Advanced Se...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: Yes

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AH1RX6H0135582
    Stock: 135582
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-17-2025

  • New Listing
    • 38,767 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • F.C. Kerbeck Buick GMC (325 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Palmyra, NJ / 325 miles away from Roanoke, VA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1G6AA1RX3H0143725
    Stock: 71062AB
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-15-2025

Showing 1 - 21 out of 45 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Cadillac ATS Coupe

Read recent reviews for the Cadillac ATS Coupe
Overall Consumer Rating
4.2 out of 5 stars15 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 15 reviews
  • 5 star
    (27%)
  • 4 star
    (67%)
  • 3 star
    (7%)
  • 2 star
    (0%)
  • 1 star
    (0%)
4 out of 5 stars

eye catching look, no more granpa cadillac

Ponco, 11/16/2017
2016 Cadillac ATS Coupe Luxury 2dr Coupe AWD (2.0L 4cyl Turbo 8A)
I've own a coupe since the day I first purchased my vehicle. Cadillac ATS coupe is a real upgrade for me from my beloved Honda Accord Coupe that has been discontinued from 2018 model. The overall look is just great and I got so much compliment from my neighbors. There some pros I'd like to state; a) there are not many around and I rarely see the same model that I drive (see sedans but … not coupe), b) distinctive styling and ground crawling design, c) high quality material inside, d) CUE is not as bad as the critics have reviewed, e) great power from 2.0T engine, f) smooth 8AT shifting. I must also mention some cons and they are; a) front seats do not recline fully, b) lane departure warning, blind spot warning, front collision alerts do not come with Lux model unless it is chosen. My 2013 Honda Accord came with all of them as standard features, e) gas mileage is poor. average is around 22, max. 33. my 3.5L V6 accord coupe recorded max 36 highway, 27-28 normal, f) poor traction on OEM Continental run flat tires. Got snowy day recently and the grip was poor. I expected better and now am worried about coming snow season, g) it would be nice if the interior noise was suppressed since this is a luxury brand coupe. Overall I am very happy with this vehicle. It's exciting to drive.
Report abuse

Used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe in Roanoke, VA Values

Estimated values
2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe Premium Luxury 2dr Coupe (3.6L 6cyl 8A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$13,398$17,389$20,430
Clean$12,971$16,818$19,738
Average$12,260$15,866$18,586
Rough$11,335$14,628$17,089

The average list price of a used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe in Roanoke, Virginia is $18,021. The average mileage on a used Cadillac ATS Coupe 2017 for sale in Roanoke, Virginia is 67,714. Based on the average mileage of 67,714 for used 2017 Cadillac ATS Coupe for sale in Roanoke, VA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Cadillac ATS Coupe 2017 in Roanoke, Virginia to be $12,260.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.