Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
2,784 listings
  • $23,995
    good price
    $905 below market
    • 29,172 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 28 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • South Shore Jaguar Land Rover (223 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Crown Point, IN / 223 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    MANAGER SPECIAL, BLOWOUT PRICE!!! HURRY!!!, 6-Way Power Driver's Seat, Blind Spot Detection (BSD), EyeSight System, Heated Front Bucket Seats, Keyless...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (28 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAEC9NH274399
    Stock: JP3170
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-11-2025

  • $23,184
    fair price
    $31 below market
    • 48,087 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 28 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Zeigler Honda of Racine (198 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Mount Pleasant, WI / 198 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    1 OWNER CLEAN CARFAX!AWD ++, APPLE CARPLAY, ANDROID AUTO, PARKING SENSORS, HEATED SEATS, BACKUP CAMERA, KEYLESS ENTRY, BLUETOOTH, 3.90 Axle Ratio, ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (28 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAPC9N8217584
    Stock: P12739
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-20-2025

  • Price Drop
    $20,590
    fair price
    $876 below market
    • 59,432 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Buffalo, NY / 659 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAPC3L8217061
    Stock: 2003989473
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-20-2025

  • Price Drop
    $23,992
    good price
    $1,966 below market
    • 24,408 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Napleton's Schaumburg Subaru (184 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Schaumburg, IL / 184 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Crosstrek Sport, 4D Sport Utility, 2.5L 4-Cylinder DOHC 16V, Lineartronic CVT, AWD, Crystal Black Silica, Gray w/Yellow Stitching w/StarTex Upholstery...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTHRC9NH284305
    Stock: SS100255A
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 07-30-2025

  • New Listing
    • 83,961 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 26 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Family First Auto Sales (437 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Clarksville, TN / 437 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (26 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GPANC2HH211220
    Stock: F17307
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 148,274 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • A & A Auto Sales (426 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Fayetteville, AR / 426 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTHMCXMH247754
    Stock: 247754
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 112,412 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 23 City / 30 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • Paley Auto Group (472 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 472 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GPABC6HG222716
    Stock: 222716
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $12,000
    good price
    $1,492 below market
    • 131,341 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Auto Union (498 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Smyrna, TN / 498 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTABC6JH202607
    Stock: 202607
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-14-2025

  • $12,890
    good price
    $1,286 below market
    • 89,123 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 23 City / 31 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • Zeigler Toyota of Racine (198 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Mount Pleasant, WI / 198 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GPABC2G9249589
    Stock: G9249589
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-04-2025

  • $26,488
    good price
    $1,344 below market
    • 13,700 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Music City Autoplex (473 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Nashville, TN / 473 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    CLEAN CARFAX NO ACCIDENTS REPORTED, ONE OWNER, REAR VIEW BACK-UP CAMERA, BLUETOOTH HANDS-FREE CALLING, AWD/ALL WHEEL DRIVE, NAVIGATION/GPS, HEATED LEA...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTHNC3N8238233
    Stock: 1873
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-25-2025

  • Price Drop
    $16,500
    good price
    $1,734 below market
    • 108,216 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Randy Wise Hyundai (410 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Flint, MI / 410 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTALC3JH294354
    Stock: G19584P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-05-2025

  • $17,893
    good price
    $1,667 below market
    • 88,675 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Kocourek Hyundai (229 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Wausau, WI / 229 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAMC5JH224319
    Stock: H1618B
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-31-2025

  • Price Drop
    $24,990
    fair price
    $244 below market
    • 15,956 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (106 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Johnston, IA / 106 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Low Mileage,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless St...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTHMC7N8256526
    Stock: N8256526DT
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $18,995
    good price
    $1,692 below market
    • 70,365 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Royal RV & Auto Center (307 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Middlebury, IN / 307 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    For more than 35 years, Royal Auto Center has proudly served the community by offering an exceptional selection of vehicles, top-notch customer servic...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAPC0L8261342
    Stock: A261342
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-29-2025

  • $19,100
    good price
    $2,511 below market
    • 57,059 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG, Manual
    • Auto Boutique Ohio (469 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 469 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    *Disclaimer*PRICE LISTED DOES NOT INCLUDE TAX (TAX RATE VARIES DEPENDING ON STATE, CITY, & COUNTY), TITLE ($20), TEMP TAG ($20.50) MEMO-TITLE FOR REGI...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTACC5N9230168
    Stock: Y1329W
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-27-2025

  • $16,995
    good price
    $1,382 below market
    • 100,254 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Meeker Hill Auto Sales (199 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Germantown, WI / 199 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    2 OWNERS WITH NO ACCIDENTS! CLEAN CAR FAX REPORT IS AVAILABLE! SERVICE RECORDS ON THE CAR FAX REPORT! NEWER MICHELIN TIRES! ALL WHEEL DRIVE WILL KEEP ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAMC9J8289027
    Stock: 289027
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-04-2025

  • Price Drop
    $23,899
    good price
    $1,748 below market
    • 42,302 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Don Ayres Acura (341 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Fort Wayne, IN / 341 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Thank you for stopping by our virtual showroom!This 2022 Subaru Crosstrek Limited offered in Magnetite Gray Metallic will make a great addition...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTHNC3NH234179
    Stock: PA5149
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-08-2025

  • $17,490
    good price
    $1,453 below market
    • 98,015 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • American Auto Outlet (347 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Nixa, MO / 347 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    This vehicle, like nearly all of our inventory selection, comes with American Auto Outlet s signature 6 months, or 6,000 miles AmeriCare Limited Warra...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAMC8JH330781
    Stock: RET330781
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-22-2025

  • $13,900
    good price
    $978 below market
    • 128,000 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Plymouth Auto Sales (236 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Le Mars, IA / 236 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTACC6JH303046
    Stock: 20247
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-20-2025

  • $23,706
    good price
    $1,205 below market
    • 33,473 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 28 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Beardmore Subaru (226 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Bellevue, NE / 226 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Certification Program Details: Beardmore Certified Vehicles include a 6 month or 6,000 miles limited warranty and a 2 year or 100,000 mile powertrain ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (28 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAEC2NH281033
    Stock: 30180A
    Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
    Listed since: 08-22-2025

  • New Listing
    $20,636
    good price
    $1,231 below market
    • 47,842 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 27 City / 33 Hwy MPG
    • Don Jacobs BMW (467 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Lexington, KY / 467 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Odometer is 41163 miles below market average!ONE OWNER, CLEAN HISTORY REPORT, LOCAL TRADE, REMAINDER OF FACTORY WARRANTY, Blind Spot Detection (BSD), ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    30 Combined MPG (27 City/33 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JF2GTAEC4L8267700
    Stock: 690020A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-14-2025

Showing 421 - 441 out of 2,784 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Subaru Crosstrek

Read recent reviews for the Subaru Crosstrek
Overall Consumer Rating
3.9 out of 5 stars100 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 100 reviews
  • 5 star
    (53%)
  • 4 star
    (18%)
  • 3 star
    (9%)
  • 2 star
    (6%)
  • 1 star
    (14%)
5 out of 5 stars

Four years in, I love my Crosstrek

DS, 11/06/2018
2019 Subaru Crosstrek 2.0i Premium 4dr SUV AWD (2.0L 4cyl CVT)
I love the car. Interior-wise, as far as space, it's big enough for my needs, quite similar to the 2006 Pontiac Vibe I sold to get it. It's loaded with active safety technology. Contrary to Edmunds' review, the car is not underpowered, even on steep hills. The CVT transmission is smooth and precise, and I love the paddle shifters that give me manual control when I want it. The car … has a nice, tight turning radius, and handles well with Subaru's praiseworthy AWD. It's a small SUV, with a very solid, almost muscular road feel. Finally, it's well crafted... and good to look at IMHO.
Report abuse

FAQ

What is a good price for a used 2019 Subaru Crosstrek?

According to Edmunds.com's True Market Value calculations, the retail price of a used 2019 Subaru Crosstrek's most popular trim, the 2.0i Premium, in great condition with 48,000 miles on its odometer, is $25,081. Prices vary by trim, region and options included.

What engine powers all trim levels of the 2019 Subaru Crosstrek?

A 2.0-liter four-cylinder (152-hp) engine powers every trim level of the 2019 Subaru Crosstrek.
Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

EV Details

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.