Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
1,256 listings
    • 14,075 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3l, 6cyl
    • Marshall Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (117 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Crittenden, KY / 117 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Marshall CDJR is located only 20 minutes south of Cincinnati, Oh! All new vehicles come with Lifetime Powertrain Protection! Plus, a 2-year oil change...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTAM3PL593700
    Stock: B3145
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 11-29-2023

  • $32,900
    fair price
    $500 above market
    • 51,483 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Tri County Motors (176 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Camby, IN / 176 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAGXPL506741
    Stock: 506741
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-13-2025

  • $36,498
    fair price
    $248 above market
    • 36,253 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Mike Kelly Toyota (173 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Uniontown, PA / 173 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Mike Kelly of Uniontown we have devoted ourselves to delivering best in class service to our customers, making us one of the best places to buy new...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTFG8ML557661
    Stock: T25-317A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-21-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 33,025 miles
    • Frame damage reported, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Honda of Cleveland Heights (131 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Cleveland Heights, OH / 131 miles away from Columbus, OH

    2021 Jeep Gladiator Overland Granite Crystal Metallic Clearcoat 4D Crew Cab 3.6L V6 24V VVT1-Year SiriusXM Guardian Trial, 240 Amp Alternator, 5-Yea...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: Yes

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTFG8ML578185
    Stock: 578185F01
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-03-2025

    • 13 miles
    • No accidents, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • NewGen Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (155 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Clinton, MI / 155 miles away from Columbus, OH

    BRAND NEW!! UNTITLED!! FACTORY WARRANTY!! 4WD!! 4 WHEEL DRIVE!! HARD TOP!! ALPINE STEREO!! TRAILER HITCH ZOOM!! SKID PLATES!! HEAVY DUTY DANA AXLES!! ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG0PL575700
    Stock: N23166
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 11-19-2023

    • 21,162 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Herrnstein Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram FIAT (42 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Chillicothe, OH / 42 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Herrnstein Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram Kia is pleased to offer this 2023 Jeep Gladiator Mojave in Bright White Clearcoat with Black Cloth. This Gladiator ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTEG7PL518941
    Stock: 5GL419A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-01-2025

  • New Listing
    $33,998
    fair price
    $29 below market
    • 28,817 miles
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from VA to OH*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 333 miles away from Columbus, OH

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTFG4PL519395
    Stock: 27532451
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 7,890 miles
    • Manufacturer buyback reported, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Henkel Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (199 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Springfield, MI / 199 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG6PL510382
    Stock: Q7463
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-18-2025

  • New Listing
    $38,510
    fair price
    $1,709 above market
    • 43,253 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • University Ford (111 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Huntington, WV / 111 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Hydro Blue Pearlcoat 2021 Jeep Gladiator Mojave 4WD 8-Speed Automatic 3.6L V6 24V VVT8.4" Radio & Premium Audio Group (1-Year SiriusXM Guardian Trial...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTEG7ML501536
    Stock: YP1956
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-25-2025

    • 21,093 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Nourse Honda (42 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Chillicothe, OH / 42 miles away from Columbus, OH

    ** Apple CarPlay/Android Auto, ** Backup Camera, ** Bluetooth, ** Brake Assist, ** Cruise Control, ** HomeLink, ** Keyless Start, ** Keyless Entry, **...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTBG0ML606388
    Stock: 28183A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-05-2025

  • $29,690
    fair price
    $727 above market
    • 47,971 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • North Coast Mitsubishi Akron (114 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Akron, OH / 114 miles away from Columbus, OH

    CARFAX One-Owner. Priced below KBB Fair Purchase Price!Hydro Blue Pearlcoat 2021 Jeep Gladiator Willys 4D Crew Cab 8-Speed Automatic 3.6L V6 24V VVT...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAGXML571391
    Stock: 571391CA1
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-13-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 13,574 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from SC to OH*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Charleston, SC / 522 miles away from Columbus, OH

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTEG6PL544141
    Stock: 27496177
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    $43,815
    fair price
    $1,282 above market
    • 9,199 miles
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Dan Young Tipton (160 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Tipton, IN / 160 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Recent Arrival!2023 Jeep Gladiator Mojave 4WD High Velocity Clearcoat 3.6L V6 24V VVT 8-Speed AutomaticOdometer is 11756 miles below market average!...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTEG6PL518669
    Stock: TM1828
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-28-2025

  • New Listing
    • 17,537 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Sacramento, CA / 2,043 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG7PL561938
    Stock: 2003988561
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-27-2025

    • 52,580 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Spitzer Motors of Mansfield (61 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Mansfield, OH / 61 miles away from Columbus, OH

    **Jeep Certified* *5 Speed Manual* *3.6L V6* *Soft Top* *New Tires* *Local Trade** Jeep Certified Pre-Owned means you get the reassurance of up to a 7...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG7ML522794
    Stock: 26218MA
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-08-2025

  • Price Drop
    $31,000
    fair price
    $114 above market
    • 57,367 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Bill Estes Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (178 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Brownsburg, IN / 178 miles away from Columbus, OH

    RECALL NOTICE: Some vehicles offered for sale may be subject to unrepaired manufacturer safety recalls. To determine the recall status of a vehicle,...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTFGXPL535035
    Stock: BCJP230544
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-12-2025

  • New Listing
    • 21,300 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 910 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (17 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG6PL519423
    Stock: 2003927692
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-30-2025

  • New Listing
    • 24,323 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • BuyRight Auto (138 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Greensburg, IN / 138 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG4PL543199
    Stock: 543199
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-11-2025

  • New Listing
    • 24,212 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Memphis, TN / 504 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTAG1PL579885
    Stock: 2003988416
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-21-2025

    • 54,858 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Carvana - Columbus (2 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 2 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6HJTAG1ML592081
    Stock: 2003906369
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-01-2025

  • New Listing
    • 20 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5'0” bed, 3.6l, 6cyl
    • Ron Lewis Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram Fiat Cranberry (162 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Cranberry Township, PA / 162 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Ron Lewis includes a 100,000 mile powertrain warranty!* Available as a certified Pre Owned!!, FULLY SERVICED!!, PRICED TO SELL!!, 240 Amp Alternator, ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    19 Combined MPG (16 City/23 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1C6JJTEG9PL553299
    Stock: PC256
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-26-2025

Showing 337 - 357 out of 1,256 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Jeep Gladiator

Read recent reviews for the Jeep Gladiator
Overall Consumer Rating
4.1 out of 5 stars38 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 38 reviews
  • 5 star
    (68%)
  • 4 star
    (11%)
  • 3 star
    (0%)
  • 2 star
    (5%)
  • 1 star
    (16%)
5 out of 5 stars

Perfect for me

Dan Hirvi, 04/22/2022
2022 Jeep Gladiator Sport S 4dr Crew Cab 4WD SB (3.6L 6cyl 6M)
I highly recommend the Sport S with the Max Tow Package. Torquey and smooth, the automatic 8-speed transmission is pretty nice with the trusty 3.6 L V6. It's a real hauler or puller when I need it, it's articulation is great for some off road adventures and is comfortable on the highway. Plus, the sticker on my door has a rated payload of 1465 lbs! Don't let them tell you it's not "Jeep" … enough or it's not "truck" enough or it's not comfy enough. Get the customer preferred package with hard top and stick with the M+S rated all terrains for smooth and quiet daily driving. This is a perfect niche vehicle for some people!
Report abuse

Used 2023 Jeep Gladiator in Columbus, OH Values

Estimated values
2023 Jeep Gladiator Sport S 4dr Crew Cab 4WD SB (3.0L 6cyl Turbodiesel 8A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$26,501$27,829$29,325
Clean$26,202$27,494$28,950
Average$25,702$26,934$28,323
Rough$25,054$26,207$27,509

The average list price of a used 2023 Jeep Gladiator in Columbus, Ohio is $36,291. The average mileage on a used Jeep Gladiator 2023 for sale in Columbus, Ohio is 27,619. Based on the average mileage of 27,619 for used 2023 Jeep Gladiator for sale in Columbus, OH and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Jeep Gladiator 2023 in Columbus, Ohio to be $25,702.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Truck Details

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.