Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
400 listings
    • 102,871 miles
    • Odometer issue reported, 4 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • AutoMax of St. Louis (237 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Saint Louis, MO / 237 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S33G9154878
    Stock: 154878
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $16,275
    fair price
    $586 above market
    • 76,403 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • LaFontaine Buick GMC (409 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Highland Charter Township, MI / 409 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Odometer is 21678 miles below market average! Radiant Silver FWDHeated Seats, Leather Seats, Backup Camera, Keyless Entry, Local Trade, Non Smoker, Bl...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S3XG9109274
    Stock: 25G3860A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-01-2025

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    $21,500
    fair price
    $785 above market
    • 34,047 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Lewis Automotive Farmington (434 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Farmington, AR / 434 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Thank you for visiting my website. Let me help you find the perfect vehicle. Contact me if you have questions.

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S31G9174806
    Stock: G9174806
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-02-2024

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    $14,900
    fair price
    $483 above market
    • 106,580 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Gary Simmons Lease - Sales (440 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Mc Kenzie, TN / 440 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S34G9128144
    Stock: 1113985
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-02-2025

    • 82,891 miles
    • Rebuilt vehicle reported, 4 owners, rental vehicle
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • BHM Auto Sales (430 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Detroit, MI / 430 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    2016 Cadillac XTS Luxury FWD 4dr Sedan Price: $8450 Mileage: 82891 Transmission: AUTOMATIC 6-SPEED Engine: 3.6 V6 POWER LOCKS/WINDOWS CRUISE CONTROL A...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S34G9161208
    Stock: 161208
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-04-2024

  • Price Drop
    $19,990
    fair price
    $1,104 above market
    • 57,146 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 19 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Weelborg Ford (247 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Redwood Falls, MN / 247 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Weelborg Ford is proud to present this 2018 Cadillac XTS Luxury.Local Trade In, Remote Start, Leather Seats, Heated Seats, Cooled Seats, Heated Second...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S37J9135693
    Stock: R10940A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-26-2025

  • $16,600
    fair price
    $488 above market
    • 98,635 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 19 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Josh's All Under Ten (394 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Lima, OH / 394 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    WE ARE OPEN FOR ALL YOUR SALES AND SERVICE NEEDS!Odometer is 2868 miles below market average!Radiant Silver Metallic 2018 Cadillac XTS Luxury 3.6L V6 ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S34J9146621
    Stock: 146621
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-01-2025

  • $11,500
    fair price
    $659 above market
    • 140,262 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Shakopee Redline Motors (215 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Shakopee, MN / 215 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Brand New Tires

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S34G9193668
    Stock: 193668
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-17-2025

  • $15,999
    fair price
    $33 above market
    • 89,424 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 19 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Kingsman Auto Cave (344 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Springfield, MO / 344 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Seller's description For Sale: 2018 Cadillac XTS Luxury Two Owners | Clean Title | Now available at Kingsman Auto Cave Grain Valley, MO Luxury, comfor...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S37J9117582
    Stock: 117582
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-03-2025

    • 104,601 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Howard's Auto Sales (291 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Elkhart, IN / 291 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S3XJ9161525
    Stock: 12842
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-04-2025

  • $13,995
    fair price
    $95 above market
    • 99,568 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Premier Automotive Group (433 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Milford, OH / 433 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    UP FOR SALE IS A 2016 CADILLAC XTS LUXURY, AUTOMATIC, NAVIGATION, BACK UP CAMERA, POWER WINDOWS, POWER DOOR LOCKS, POWER HEATED LEATHER SEATS, TILT ST...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S3XG9195277
    Stock: 195277
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-02-2025

    • 101,334 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Ray Chevrolet (179 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Fox Lake, IL / 179 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    CARFAX One-Owner. Clean CARFAX. Red Passion Tintcoat 2016 Cadillac XTS Luxury AWD 6-Speed Automatic Electronic 3.6L V6 DGI DOHC VVTRecent Arrival! 17/...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S32G9112831
    Stock: 47957A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-28-2025

    • 75,575 miles
    • No accidents, 5 owners, rental vehicle
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Apple Ford Shakopee (213 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Shakopee, MN / 213 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    *FORD BLUE CERTIFIED PRE-OWNED*, *3 MONTH/4,000 MILE COMPREHENSIVE WARRANTY*, *LEATHER SEATS*, *DUAL POWER SEATS*, *PUSH BUTTON START*, *BLUETOOTH*, *...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S31G9159769
    Stock: S14325Z
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-20-2025

  • New Listing
    • 19,210 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 748 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S39G9126466
    Stock: 2003650581
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-11-2025

  • New Listing
    • 95,402 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 17 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Walser Nissan Wayzata (225 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Wayzata, MN / 225 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    At Walser, you’ll get an exceptional car-buying experience. Our *streamlined process* means you’ll work with one dedicated customer specialist to help...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (17 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61L5S3XE9248305
    Stock: 24N1261T
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-01-2025

    • 125,738 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Zone Motors (187 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Addison, IL / 187 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Vehicle Overview BUY AND DRIVE WORRY FREE! Own this CARFAX Buyback Guarantee Qualified XTS today, worry free! KEY FEATURES AND OPTIONS Comes equipped ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61R5S31G9136946
    Stock: E087
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-07-2025

    • 107,134 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 18 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Blue Sky Automotive (203 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Chicago, IL / 203 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (18 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61L5S39G9179318
    Stock: 179318
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 36,996 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax Maplewood (220 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Maplewood, MN / 220 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (17 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S32E9144355
    Stock: 27411499
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 125,720 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Tom Pappas Toyota (228 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Saint Peters, MO / 228 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Radiant Silver Metallic 2016 Cadillac XTS 4D Sedan Luxury AWD 6-Speed Automatic Electronic 3.6L V6 DGI DOHC VVT 17/26 City/Highway MPG Clean CARFAX.AC...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S33G9112854
    Stock: P14436
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-04-2025

    • 86,821 miles
    • Insurance loss reported, 4 owners, rental vehicle
    • 19 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Prestige Auto Sales (276 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Lincoln, NE / 276 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: Yes

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61M5S37J9170721
    Stock: 170721
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-13-2025

    • 95,943 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Wilson Motors Junction City (341 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Junction City, KS / 341 miles away from Cedar Rapids, IA

    Experience luxury and performance with this stunning black 2016 Cadillac XTS Luxury AWD! Powered by a robust 3.6L V6 engine and an automatic transmiss...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2G61N5S31G9162099
    Stock: 162099
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-21-2025

Showing 127 - 147 out of 400 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Cadillac XTS

Read recent reviews for the Cadillac XTS
Overall Consumer Rating
4.1 out of 5 stars52 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 52 reviews
  • 5 star
    (54%)
  • 4 star
    (23%)
  • 3 star
    (4%)
  • 2 star
    (17%)
  • 1 star
    (2%)
5 out of 5 stars

XTS

Anthony Lupino, 05/25/2016
2016 Cadillac XTS Luxury 4dr Sedan (3.6L 6cyl 6A)
This car is the best car that I have owned. The car rides quietly, runs great and looks great. Did I say that it produced in North America not Asia. Service just down the road with plenty of GM dealers to take care of every need. The quality of the car for the cost is excellent you will not be disappointed with the xts take a look. I've had the car for one year and it had proven to be … excellent on the road in upstate New York's winter wonderland. With snows on all four wheels it will go through almost any snowy conditions. The XTS now has 27,000 miles on it and is running very well. Only routine maintenance has been preformed on the car and it is included in the price of the car so there are no out of pocket expenses in caring for this vehicle. We have taken the XTS on several long trips to the Carolina's and it gets over 30 miles per gallon while on the freeways and it is very comfortable to drive long distances. The xts has 37000 miles on it and was recently in for service for rear axle service. Was loaned a new Cadillac to drive during the service. Received excellent service from the dealer warranty is excellent. Oil changes are included with this car another great feature. Very happy with the vehicle and all of the features it offers.
Report abuse

Used 2016 Cadillac XTS in Cedar Rapids, IA Values

Estimated values
2016 Cadillac XTS Luxury 4dr Sedan (3.6L 6cyl 6A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$10,231$14,203$17,020
Clean$9,822$13,608$16,274
Average$9,141$12,617$15,032
Rough$8,255$11,328$13,417

The average list price of a used 2016 Cadillac XTS in Cedar Rapids, Iowa is $15,764. The average mileage on a used Cadillac XTS 2016 for sale in Cedar Rapids, Iowa is 88,681. Based on the average mileage of 88,681 for used 2016 Cadillac XTS for sale in Cedar Rapids, IA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Cadillac XTS 2016 in Cedar Rapids, Iowa to be $9,141.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.