Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
254 listings
  • New Listing
    • 45,934 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 19 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from IN to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 1,477 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWJM7A32JC040569
    Stock: 26894489
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Stock photo**
    • 148,050 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Unique Imports (91 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Tucson, AZ / 91 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    We offer instant delivery O.A.C. Trades are always welcome, paid or not. We offer competitive financing on our entire fleet. Extended warranties are a...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWBA7A38JC024471
    Stock: 024471
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $16,492
    good price
    $1,488 below market
    • 68,842 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 24 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • AutoNation Chevrolet Arrowhead (41 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Peoria, AZ / 41 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    Sun/MoonroofLane Keeping AssistKeyless StartPure WhiteTitan Black; Perforated V-Tex Leatherette Seating SurfacesThis vehicle includes a Money-B...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A37MC004569
    Stock: MC004569
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-22-2025

  • $17,590
    fair price
    $718 below market
    • 64,706 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 24 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Phoenix (29 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 29 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A34MC015545
    Stock: 2003694021
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-20-2025

  • $17,590
    fair price
    $383 below market
    • 68,933 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 24 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Phoenix (29 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 29 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A31MC001540
    Stock: 2003808029
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-06-2025

  • Price Drop
    $18,995
    fair price
    $36 above market
    • 56,291 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 24 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • DriveTime of North Phoenix (31 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 31 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    Shop at DriveTime: Get started on your personalized car-buying journey today. With no credit impact, you can get approved for your real, personalized ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    28 Combined MPG (24 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A31MC011873
    Stock: 1050209056
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-29-2025

  • $15,998
    fair price
    $450 above market
    • 79,158 miles
    • 3 accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from FL to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Naples, FL / 1,850 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWMA7A37KC004092
    Stock: 26933303
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    Stock photo**
    $11,777
    fair price
    $90 above market
    • 109,313 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Sullivan Motor Company (16 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Mesa, AZ / 16 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A36KC011630
    Stock: 25-J1132
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-02-2025

  • New Listing
    • 29,350 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from VA to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Woodbridge, VA / 1,939 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A38KC007336
    Stock: 26925389
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 84,533 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 999 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: Yes

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWMA7A3XKC004135
    Stock: 27353090
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 66,572 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from PA to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Lancaster, PA / 1,992 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A34KC003882
    Stock: 27361914
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 75,129 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Cleveland, OH / 1,721 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A36KC001597
    Stock: 2003583197
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-20-2025

    • 59,750 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, rental vehicle
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in El Paso, TX / 328 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A33KC007373
    Stock: 26702229
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Stock photo**
    • 148,355 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • E-Z Motors (16 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Mesa, AZ / 16 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A32KC001368
    Stock: RE8886
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-09-2025

    • 35,403 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from IL to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    • Power Driver Seat
    Close

    Located in Algonquin, IL / 1,400 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A39KC010973
    Stock: 27345938
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 74,553 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Richmond, VA / 1,922 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWLA7A39KC005921
    Stock: 2003758564
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-04-2025

    • 70,858 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use
    • 25 City / 36 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 1,471 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    29 Combined MPG (25 City/36 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWMA7A33KC003764
    Stock: 2003740602
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-21-2025

  • $15,487
    great price
    $2,765 below market
    • 65,089 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Horne Kia (13 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Gilbert, AZ / 13 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (23 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWCA7A39LC016029
    Stock: H10009
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 11-26-2024

  • New Listing
    • 63,325 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 23 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 974 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (23 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A38LC023209
    Stock: 2003687504
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-28-2025

  • Price Drop
    $18,878
    good price
    $1,129 below market
    • 38,451 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Hamilton, NJ / 2,083 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,Rare Find,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Hands-Free Liftgate,Heated Seats,Keyless...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (23 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWCA7A3XLC024883
    Stock: LC024883U
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $15,973
    fair price
    $345 below market
    • 64,870 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 34 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Salem, OR / 1,002 miles away from Apache Junction, AZ

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,High Demand,Rare Find,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,L...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    27 Combined MPG (23 City/34 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 1VWSA7A32LC007314
    Stock: C007314
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 169 - 189 out of 254 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Volkswagen Passat

Read recent reviews for the Volkswagen Passat
Overall Consumer Rating
3.8 out of 5 stars63 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 63 reviews
  • 5 star
    (48%)
  • 4 star
    (24%)
  • 3 star
    (11%)
  • 2 star
    (5%)
  • 1 star
    (13%)
4.63 out of 5 stars

Great fun & economical car.

flagman2, 11/22/2013
2014 Volkswagen Passat TDI SE 4dr Sedan w/Sunroof, Navigation (2.0L 4cyl Turbodiesel 6AM)
Looks great, responsive in acceleration, handling, and braking. Had it about a month. Previous cars were Camry XLE V6 and Infiniti I30. VW has a 110+ wheelbase which gives it a better ride than my Camry. The 2.0 TDI is responsive - 3.9 torque and breaks loose if not careful. Ride is quiet on 18" wheels. Previous reviewer got a Base model, with a 5 cylinder engine. If he paid $32k it was … well over List Price!
Report abuse

Used 2018 Volkswagen Passat in Apache Junction, AZ Values

Estimated values
2018 Volkswagen Passat V6 GT 4dr Sedan (3.6L 6cyl 6AM) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$13,232$15,096$16,642
Clean$12,799$14,585$16,059
Average$12,079$13,733$15,088
Rough$11,141$12,626$13,825

The average list price of a used 2018 Volkswagen Passat in Apache Junction, Arizona is $17,176. The average mileage on a used Volkswagen Passat 2018 for sale in Apache Junction, Arizona is 72,260. Based on the average mileage of 72,260 for used 2018 Volkswagen Passat for sale in Apache Junction, AZ and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Volkswagen Passat 2018 in Apache Junction, Arizona to be $12,079.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.