Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
58 listings
  • $17,499
    great price
    $3,349 below market
    • 78,410 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 20 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • One Stop Motors (69 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Yakima, WA / 69 miles away from Pasco, WA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6FB3GA185273
    Stock: 185273
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-14-2025

  • $5,799
    fair price
    $818 below market
    • 174,030 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 14 City / 20 Hwy MPG
    • Bellingham Nissan (232 mi away)
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Bellingham, WA / 232 miles away from Pasco, WA

    Thank you for visiting my website. Let me help you find the perfect vehicle. Contact me if you have questions.

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/20 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDDJ75X86A050909
    Stock: X3087A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-31-2025

  • New Listing
    $42,995
    fair price
    $2,521 below market
    • 49,895 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 16 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • Freeman Motor Company (181 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Portland, OR / 181 miles away from Pasco, WA

    Freeman Motor Company is a 3 time winner of Oregon's QUALITY Dealer of the YEAR. You can connect with us by calling 5**-3**-5***.Call now or visit our...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (16 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ7GB2GA178772
    Stock: 178772
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-03-2025

  • $16,995
    fair price
    $1,052 below market
    • 97,177 miles
    • No accidents, 4 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • TDI Auto Sales (231 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Boise, ID / 231 miles away from Pasco, WA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6FBXGA185688
    Stock: 2211289
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-07-2025

  • Stock photo**
    $24,827
    fair price
    $1,330 below market
    • 38,968 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • Archibald's (8 mi away)
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Kennewick, WA / 8 miles away from Pasco, WA

    ABOUT THIS VEHICLE This 2016 Mercedes-Benz CLS 400 in Designo Diamond White Metallic is the kind of car that doesn t just turn heads it makes jaws dro...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6FB7GA173322
    Stock: 19606A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-29-2025

  • New Listing
    $29,990
    fair price
    $68 below market
    • 38,196 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Nashville, TN / 1,803 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (17 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ7DB9GA175100
    Stock: 2003835584
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-01-2025

  • $24,999
    fair price
    $424 above market
    • 85,711 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 25 Hwy MPG
    • 4 Season Motors (43 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Sunnyside, WA / 43 miles away from Pasco, WA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/25 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ9BB6GA161279
    Stock: 2554
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-21-2025

    • 73,461 miles
    • No accidents, 6 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 14 City / 20 Hwy MPG
    • Cars R Us (172 mi away)
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Power Driver Seat
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Tacoma, WA / 172 miles away from Pasco, WA

    Step into luxury with our stunning 2006 Mercedes-Benz CLS 500! This elegant sedan is powered by a robust 5.0L NA V8 engine, delivering a smooth and po...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    16 Combined MPG (14 City/20 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDDJ75XX6A014073
    Stock: 7692
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-25-2025

  • New Listing
    • 76,489 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Birmingham, AL / 1,907 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    22 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6HB2GA168879
    Stock: 2003975129
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-11-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 60,777 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 17 City / 25 Hwy MPG
    • Complete Automotive (180 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Seattle, WA / 180 miles away from Pasco, WA

    SAVE OVER $58,005 FROM NEW! ALL WHEEL DRIVE! ZERO TO SIXTY IN 4.8 SECONDS! PERFORMANCE! HANDLING! LUXURY! STYLE! COMFORT! SAFETY! VALUE! AND 25 MILES ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/25 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ9BB2GA165457
    Stock: 12108
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-18-2025

  • New Listing
    • 52,037 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 20 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Oklahoma City, OK / 1,345 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6FB2GA179898
    Stock: 2003996342
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-02-2025

  • New Listing
    • 39,789 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 20 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Upgraded Headlights
    Close

    Located in Birmingham, AL / 1,907 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (20 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ6FBXGA183925
    Stock: 2004034311
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-29-2025

  • $34,850
    good price
    $2,483 below market
    • 32,395 miles
    • No accidents, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 23 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • The Autohaus (232 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Bellingham, WA / 232 miles away from Pasco, WA

    This Mercedes-Benz CLS CLS 450 4MATIC is powered by a strong 3.0L Turbo I6 362hp 369ft. lbs. engine and a 9-Speed Shiftable Automatic transmission. Te...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J5KB7KA028172
    Stock: IAH8087
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-10-2025

  • New Listing
    $30,590
    good price
    $1,358 below market
    • 47,744 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 17 City / 25 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 2,120 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    20 Combined MPG (17 City/25 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ9BB5HA201126
    Stock: 2004018088
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-27-2025

  • $30,999
    fair price
    $617 below market
    • 116,249 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 16 City / 22 Hwy MPG
    • 9999 Auto Center (174 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Lakewood, WA / 174 miles away from Pasco, WA

    This 2017 Mercedes-Benz CLS comes equipped with, Active Blind Spot Assist, Active Lane Keeping Assist, Active Multicontour Driver Seat, BAS PLUS w/Cro...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    18 Combined MPG (16 City/22 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDDLJ7GB9HA195148
    Stock: 1275
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-10-2025

  • Price Drop
    $43,488
    fair price
    $659 above market
    • 44,088 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Jaguar of Tacoma at Fife (169 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Fife, WA / 169 miles away from Pasco, WA

    2020 Mercedes-Benz CLS 53 AMG® 4MATIC® 4MATIC® I6 9-Speed AutomaticRecent Arrival!12.3" Digital Instrument Cluster, 13 Speakers, 4-Wheel Disc Brak...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J6BB5LA051702
    Stock: J5RS080A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-27-2025

  • $38,980
    good price
    $801 below market
    • 69,517 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • First National Auto (183 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Seattle, WA / 183 miles away from Pasco, WA

    Recent Arrival! WEST COAST OWNED, ONE OWNER, DOCUMENTED SERVICE RECORDS, 12.3" Digital Instrument Cluster, 4-Wheel Disc Brakes, Active Distance Assist...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J6BB7LA050292
    Stock: P2408
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 06-02-2025

  • $27,990
    great price
    $3,756 below market
    • 66,284 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 23 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Freehold, NJ / 2,262 miles away from Pasco, WA

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Rare Find,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Leather Seats,Navigati...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J5KB5KA016618
    Stock: SCV60456A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    $35,590
    good price
    $1,660 below market
    • 46,939 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 23 City / 30 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 955 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (23 City/30 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J5KB5KA011788
    Stock: 2003989406
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-15-2025

  • Price Drop
    $27,995
    fair price
    $334 below market
    • 80,806 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 24 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Genesis of Kirkland (175 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Kirkland, WA / 175 miles away from Pasco, WA

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (24 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J5JB2KA028453
    Stock: G25350A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-10-2025

  • $34,590
    fair price
    $317 below market
    • 44,918 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 24 City / 31 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Atlanta, GA / 2,005 miles away from Pasco, WA

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    26 Combined MPG (24 City/31 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: WDD2J5JB9KA027977
    Stock: 2003785739
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 05-30-2025

Showing 22 - 42 out of 58 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class

Read recent reviews for the Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class
Overall Consumer Rating
4.6 out of 5 stars28 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 28 reviews
  • 5 star
    (82%)
  • 4 star
    (14%)
  • 3 star
    (0%)
  • 2 star
    (0%)
  • 1 star
    (4%)
5 out of 5 stars

Love this 2009 CLS550C!

Mike, 10/14/2015
2008 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class CLS550 4dr Sedan (5.5L 8cyl 7A)
This is our first MB....but not our last! What a great car!! Style, looks!!!! Everything is good except getting in and out, but I will sacrifice that for the Roofline and stealth handling. Very comfortable car! Drove to Chicago from our home in Phoenix...loved every mile!!!! I am now looking to purchase another one. A CLS63 AMG..... Great bang for the buck! This car doesn't take a … backseat to any BMW, or otherwise!!
Report abuse

Used 2016 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class in Pasco, WA Values

Estimated values
2016 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class CLS 400 4dr Sedan (3.0L 6cyl Turbo 7A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$18,381$22,817$25,974
Clean$17,647$21,861$24,836
Average$16,423$20,268$22,940
Rough$14,831$18,198$20,476

The average list price of a used 2016 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class in Pasco, Washington is $27,995. The average mileage on a used Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class 2016 for sale in Pasco, Washington is 67,328. Based on the average mileage of 67,328 for used 2016 Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class for sale in Pasco, WA and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class 2016 in Pasco, Washington to be $16,423.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Location

Search radius500 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.