Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
330 listings
  • $23,995
    good price
    $1,269 below market
    • 52,442 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Good Car Company (4 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Mesa, AZ / 4 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Introducing the sleek and powerful 2020 Mazda CX-9 Grand Touring in Jet Black Mica! This beauty is packed with features straight from the factory that...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY5L0401328
    Stock: 401328
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $25,711
    good price
    $1,036 below market
    • 65,270 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Liberty GMC (23 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Peoria, AZ / 23 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Soul Red Crystal Metallic 2021 Mazda CX-9 Signature AWD 6-Speed Automatic 2.5L 4-Cylinder AWD.20/26 City/Highway MPG

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBEY2M0530367
    Stock: G50504A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 02-04-2025

  • New Listing
    $13,777
    fair price
    $664 below market
    • 116,122 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Fresno, CA / 500 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    High Demand,Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Keyless Start,Lane Keeping Assist,Leather Sea...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCACY2J0201161
    Stock: J0201161PX
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 52,524 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Charlotte, NC / 1,773 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCACY2J0227596
    Stock: 2003570594
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-14-2025

    • 104,715 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 877 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBCY6J0226506
    Stock: 2003572497
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 03-29-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 32,744 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Superstition Springs Lexus (14 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Mesa, AZ / 14 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Back up Camera, Heated & Ventilated Front Seats, Sunroof / Moonroof, Navigation / Navi / GPS, Leather Interior, Bluetooth, One Owner, Bose Premium Sou...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBEYXN0628113
    Stock: L12110AA
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-10-2025

    • 51,924 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana - Phoenix (11 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 11 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY0P0648651
    Stock: 2003624669
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-12-2025

    • 98,970 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    • Third-row seating
    Close

    Located in Houston, TX / 999 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCACY3J0202724
    Stock: 27011926
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 51,358 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Driveway (16 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 16 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Hands-Free Liftgate,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,K...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDYXP0644137
    Stock: P0644137P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Price Drop
    • 81,201 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from WA to AZ*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Spokane Valley, WA / 1,022 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBCYXJ0216626
    Stock: 27099439
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 78,554 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from GA to AZ*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Norcross, GA / 1,592 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBCY0J0226551
    Stock: 27201601
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • Stock photo**
    • 14,699 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Holmes Tuttle Ford Lincoln (96 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Tucson, AZ / 96 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY2M0530452
    Stock: H250643A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-21-2025

    • 123,162 miles
    • 6 accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Victory Auto Sales & Audio (8 mi away)
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Third-row seating
    • Upgraded Headlights
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Phoenix, AZ / 8 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCABY4J0226810
    Stock: 226810
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-04-2025

  • New Listing
    • 26,589 miles
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CardinaleWay Mazda Peoria (23 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Peoria, AZ / 23 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Clean CARFAX Manager Special!! Low miles! 2,930 Miles Below Average 2022 Car And Driver Editors Choice Awards: SUVs, 2022 Insurance Institute fo...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY2N0616085
    Stock: K8331
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-30-2025

    • 107,776 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from VA to AZ*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    Close

    Located in Virginia Beach, VA / 2,026 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY4J0208679
    Stock: 26399651
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 89,485 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from TX to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Fort Worth, TX / 855 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCADY3J0226469
    Stock: 27139072
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 75,573 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from VA to AZ*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Keyless Entry/Start
    Close

    Located in Virginia Beach, VA / 2,026 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBCY2J0209282
    Stock: 27342784
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    • 33,045 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Carvana (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Dallas, TX / 877 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCACY5J0200036
    Stock: 2003686821
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-25-2025

  • New Listing
    • 37,217 miles
    • 4cyl automatic
    • CarMax (In-stock online)
    • Transfer available from GA to AZ*
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Savannah, GA / 1,787 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    CarMax values transparency and wants you to love your next car, not settle on it. Certain vehicles may have unrepaired safety recalls. Check nhtsa.gov...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCADY0J0215574
    Stock: 27158799
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    Stock photo**
    • 76,799 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Oxendale Auto Center (83 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Prescott Valley, AZ / 83 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Jet Black Mica exterior and Black interior. Heated Leather Seats, Third Row Seat, Navigation, Moonroof, Aluminum Wheels, Turbo Charged, All Wheel Driv...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBDY1M0512685
    Stock: 22159-2
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 04-28-2025

  • Price Drop
    $15,999
    great price
    $1,382 below market
    • 127,035 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 4cyl automatic
    • Driveway (In-stock online)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Farmington Hills, MI / 1,665 miles away from Tempe, AZ

    Rare Find,3rd Row Seat,Apple CarPlay,Back-Up Camera,Blind Spot Monitor,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Heated Seats,Heated Steering Wheel,Keyless Start,Lane Ke...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    23 Combined MPG (20 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JM3TCBEY0K0307189
    Stock: K0307189P
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 43 - 63 out of 330 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Mazda CX-9

Read recent reviews for the Mazda CX-9
Overall Consumer Rating
4.5 out of 5 stars133 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 133 reviews
  • 5 star
    (80%)
  • 4 star
    (14%)
  • 3 star
    (2%)
  • 2 star
    (1%)
  • 1 star
    (4%)
5 out of 5 stars

A great SUV.

Justin B, 10/11/2015
2010 Mazda CX-9 Grand Touring 4dr SUV (3.7L 6cyl 6A)
Purchased new, the CX 9 is a bit pricey and has garnered some criticism for its high MSRP. However, as other reviewers have said, a used CX9 is an absolute bargain. It' resale value isn't awesome, and it is likely influenced by the car's mileage - about 18 city and 20 highway. On the other hand, the positive attributes of the CX 9 cannot be ignored. A very confortable pair of front … bucket seats with excellent forward visibility. Decent finishing as per the car's interior. You have to be careful not to scratch the leather seats, but this is true of any leather interior. The climate control and radio are very good, with a powerful a/c. The controls can be a pain to reach if you roll the seat backwards. The vehicle is cavernous, with miles of cargo space. The back seat is split 60/40, so you can drop one seat to accomodate a large rug or lumber from Home Depot. Then there is the motor. Mazda didn't design the motor, it's a Ford V6! It is rated at 265 or 270 HP, and they may have under-reported the output. The car hits 90 in an eyeblink on an interstate and flies up hills like a sports sedan. This notwithstanding that it is a 4,200 pound behemoth. You have to be careful braking, though. The SUV has inertia so when you roll up to a stop sign, you brake in this SUV a good car length sooner than you would in a sedan. The car is too big to slap the brakes on, so you are wise to drive around town casually. Mazda mated the outstanding Ford V6 (later iterations went into the F 150, and a 305 HP monster for the Mustang), to a mediocre drivetrain. The Aisin tranny does not shift smoothly at low speeds, though it is fine on the highway. After reading many reviews, it is my impression that the tranny needs to warm up and just doesn't accelerate/shift well at low speeds. Car and Driver has noted that the CX 9 drives very well for a big vehicle. Steering is excellent, the car tracks well, and the suspension is pretty good but not great. The car is too big to fly over speed bumps or dips in the road -so don't do it. Given the combination of awesome power, a spacious interior, excellent front seats, good steering and a decent suspension, not to mention a pretty good radio and climate control, the car is a screaming "buy."
Report abuse

Used 2020 Mazda CX-9 in Tempe, AZ Values

Estimated values
2020 Mazda CX-9 Grand Touring 4dr SUV AWD (2.5L 4cyl Turbo 6A) with no options
ConditionTrade-InPrivate PartyDealer Retail
Outstanding$21,166$22,841$24,453
Clean$20,618$22,242$23,804
Average$19,704$21,244$22,723
Rough$18,517$19,948$21,318

The average list price of a used 2020 Mazda CX-9 in Tempe, Arizona is $22,923. The average mileage on a used Mazda CX-9 2020 for sale in Tempe, Arizona is 71,295. Based on the average mileage of 71,295 for used 2020 Mazda CX-9 for sale in Tempe, AZ and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Mazda CX-9 2020 in Tempe, Arizona to be $19,704.

Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters4Active

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details


* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.