Skip to FiltersReport abuse
4,658 listings
- Price Drop$27,199good price$1,931 below market
- 54,637 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Honda of Cleveland Heights (403 mi away)
Close
Located in Cleveland Heights, OH / 403 miles away from Knoxville, TN
2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited Midnight Sky 4D Sport Utility 3.6L V6 24V VVT3rd row seats: split-bench, Active Cruise Control, Auto High-beam He...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG7P8753711
Stock: 753711C01
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-30-2025 - Price Drop$34,590fair price$848 below market
- 19,023 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Carvana - Chicago (493 mi away)
- Home delivery*
Close
Located in Chicago, IL / 493 miles away from Knoxville, TN
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG0P8884528
Stock: 2003775079
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-11-2025 - Price Drop$47,621good price$2,563 below market
- 23,009 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Step One Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram Fiat Crestview (396 mi away)
Close
Located in Crestview, FL / 396 miles away from Knoxville, TN
For Sale at Crestview Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Summit Reserve 4WDStep into unmatched luxury and innovation with this Certifi...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKEG0P8107633
Stock: PP8107633
Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
Listed since: 07-19-2025 - Price Drop$36,000fair price$690 below market
- 13,740 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Parkway Dodge Chrysler Jeep Ram (464 mi away)
Close
Located in Clinton Township, MI / 464 miles away from Knoxville, TN
REMAINDER OF FACTORY WARRANTY, ONE OWNER, LOCAL TRADE, Navigation System, Quick Order Package 23E. CARFAX One-Owner. Clean CARFAX. Diamond Black Cryst...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG8P8878183
Stock: P-878183
Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
Listed since: 05-27-2025 - New Listing$35,888good price$1,913 below market
- 9,290 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- McGinley Inc (379 mi away)
Close
Located in Highland, IL / 379 miles away from Knoxville, TN
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG6P8750798
Stock: 25083A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 07-26-2025 - $31,990fair price$523 above market
- 50,981 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Carvana - Atlanta (154 mi away)
- Home delivery*
Close
Located in Atlanta, GA / 154 miles away from Knoxville, TN
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: Yes
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG4P8824090
Stock: 2003793548
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-17-2025 - $25,635good price$1,138 below market
- 54,946 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
- JTs Kia of Rock Hill (169 mi away)
Close
Located in Rock Hill, SC / 169 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Boasts 26 Highway MPG and 19 City MPG! This Jeep Grand Cherokee L boasts a Regular Unleaded V-6 3.6 L/220 engine powering this Automatic transmission....
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJJAG5P8811360
Stock: K4149
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-27-2025 - Price Drop$28,784fair price$571 below market
- 62,741 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 7 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- North Point Chrysler Jeep Dodge Ram FIAT (194 mi away)
Close
Located in Winston-Salem, NC / 194 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Thank you for viewing this Pre-owned 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Altitude 4x4 offered in Bright White Clearcoat with the Global Black interior! This ve...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG6P8881472
Stock: P3340
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-27-2025 - New Listing$30,990fair price$263 below market
- 22,599 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Carvana - Cincinnati (222 mi away)
- Home delivery*
Close
Located in Cincinnati, OH / 222 miles away from Knoxville, TN
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG9P8841001
Stock: 2003920647
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 07-28-2025 - New Listing$30,659good price$1,213 below market
- 40,701 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Murfreesboro Hyundai (148 mi away)
Close
Located in Murfreesboro, TN / 148 miles away from Knoxville, TN
2023 Baltic Gray Metallic Clearcoat 4D Sport Utility Jeep Grand Cherokee L Altitude 3.6L V6 24V VVT 4WD 8-Speed AutomaticEXCLUSIVE LIFETIME WARRANTY...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG6P8893962
Stock: AP8893962
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 07-05-2025 - Price Drop$31,260fair price$614 above market
- 50,729 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Joseph Airport Toyota (274 mi away)
Close
Located in Vandalia, OH / 274 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Certified. Silver Zynith 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited 4WD 8-Speed Automatic 3.6L V6 24V VVT**CERTIFIED LIFETIME POWERTRAIN WARRANTY**Certificati...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG3P8727770
Stock: 12817
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-24-2025 - $37,495fair price$1,113 below market
- 21,343 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Sterling Heights Dodge Chrysler Jeep Ram (461 mi away)
Close
Located in Sterling Heights, MI / 461 miles away from Knoxville, TN
You'll feel like a new person once you get behind the wheel of this Certified 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L. This Grand Cherokee L has traveled 21343 mil...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG5P8893059
Stock: P8893059
Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
Listed since: 07-14-2025 - Price Drop$32,845fair price$442 below market
- 30,164 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Jeff Wyler Toyota of Clarksville (198 mi away)
Close
Located in Clarksville, IN / 198 miles away from Knoxville, TN
***WE'RE CHANGING THE GAME IN ORDER TO KEEP YOU, AND YOUR FAMILY SAFE.***, **BUY YOUR CAR ONLINE WITH WYLER DIRECT. WE'LL DELIVER WITHIN 100 MILES FRE...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG9P8796335
Stock: 31T15840
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 07-16-2025 - New Listing$30,495good price$1,149 below market
- 31,365 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Courtesy Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram (428 mi away)
Close
Located in Altoona, PA / 428 miles away from Knoxville, TN
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG8P8813061
Stock: 5PN610A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-27-2025 - Price Drop$27,888good price$1,813 below market
- 59,696 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Hubler Ford (271 mi away)
Close
Located in Shelbyville, IN / 271 miles away from Knoxville, TN
CARFAX 1-Owner. REDUCED FROM $31,990! PRICED TO MOVE $7,600 below J.D. Power Retail! EPA 25 MPG Hwy/18 MPG City! Heated Seats, NAV, 3rd Row Seat, Prem...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG0P8806636
Stock: 14222T
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-20-2025 - Price Drop$44,990good price$2,107 below market
- 47,826 miles
- No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
- 7 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- JTs Chrysler Dodge Jeep RAM of Lexington (197 mi away)
Close
Located in Lexington, SC / 197 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Delivers 25 Highway MPG and 18 City MPG! Carfax One-Owner Vehicle. This Jeep Grand Cherokee L delivers a Regular Unleaded V-6 3.6 L/220 engine powerin...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKEG3P8706445
Stock: 541220A
Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
Listed since: 06-09-2025 - $33,500fair price$404 below market
- 25,031 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Zeigler Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram of Schaumburg (482 mi away)
Close
Located in Schaumburg, IL / 482 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Recent Arrival! CARFAX One-Owner. 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Altitude 4WD Baltic Gray Metallic ClearcoatOdometer is 16438 miles below market average!A...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG8P8770180
Stock: 250260A
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-07-2025 - $30,000good price$1,872 below market
- 48,708 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, corporate fleet vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- City Auto Memphis (350 mi away)
Close
Located in Memphis, TN / 350 miles away from Knoxville, TN
Vehicle DetailsUnleash your adventurous spirit with this stunning 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited! This robust SUV offers unparalleled vers...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: Yes
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG4P8886359
Stock: 510164
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 05-15-2025 - $32,995fair price$218 below market
- 32,838 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Fred Caldwell Chevrolet (154 mi away)
Close
Located in Clover, SC / 154 miles away from Knoxville, TN
CARFAX One-Owner. Clean CARFAX. Silver Zynith 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited 4WD 8-Speed Automatic 3.6L V6 24V VVT LEATHER, Must See!, One Owner, ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG4P8886667
Stock: P7357
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 03-06-2025 - $34,995fair price$1,004 below market
- 23,618 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Sterling Heights Dodge Chrysler Jeep Ram (461 mi away)
Close
Located in Sterling Heights, MI / 461 miles away from Knoxville, TN
This Certified 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L has all you've been looking for and more! This Grand Cherokee L offers you 23618 miles, and will be sure to ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: Yes
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: No
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKBG6P8744885
Stock: P8744885
Certified Pre-Owned: Yes
Listed since: 01-09-2025 - $29,990good price$1,259 below market
- 58,373 miles
- No accidents, 1 owner, rental vehicle
- 6 Seats, 18 City / 25 Hwy MPG
- Carvana - Atlanta (154 mi away)
- Home delivery*
Close
Located in Atlanta, GA / 154 miles away from Knoxville, TN
At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...
AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary
Accident Free Vehicle: Yes
Personal Use Only: No
History Provider: AutoCheck
Title Details: Clean Title
Salvage Vehicle: No
Frame Damage: No
Theft History: No
Lemon Status: No
Free History Report: Yes
Features and Specs:
21 Combined MPG (18 City/25 Highway)
Listing Information:
VIN: 1C4RJKAG6P8865644
Stock: 2003791179
Certified Pre-Owned: No
Listed since: 06-12-2025
Showing 106 - 126 out of 4,658 listings
Consumer Reviews for the Jeep Grand Cherokee L
Read recent reviews for the Jeep Grand Cherokee L
It’s dope
Alex, 06/11/2023
2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited 4dr SUV 4WD (3.6L 6cyl 8A)
TL;DR-Mom loves it, Dad loves it, the kids love it.
For those who want the full version, here we go.
Mom and Dads who need the 3rd row but don’t want to drop $85k on a bloated Tahoe or, and more importantly, can’t bring themselves down to the minivan, hear me! Btw if you’re reading this and don’t have kids get out of here, why are you even here? The regular grand Cherokee will haul your … dogs just fine, this is ours.
We had a 2018 grand Cherokee from our 1 child days, back when one kids crap could fit into anything. Fast forward to today, the crotch goblins have doubled and so has the required supplies. One faces forward and can grab the back of my neck while I’m driving. The other one faces backwards so I can’t see what the heck it’s doing, but it’s usually trying to choke on something. Add my tired (but still beautiful) wife to the passenger seat, and it’s a tight ride.
We rented a 2023 Durango R/T for a week and took a road trip to Disneyland, because we apparently hate our sanity. The Durango was a godsend (I swear I’m gonna get to the Jeep). All the room we could ever need. The oldest was banished to the 3rd row, the 2nd row captains chairs allowed my wife to comfortably sit in the back and soothe the demon spawn. And there was plenty of room for all the junk that had to come with. It was amazing. We got back home and put the car seats back in the 2018. The next day we went car hunting. Once you have a taste of the 6 year old not being within its arms reach you can’t go back.
Durango was #1 on our list, but the Kia Telluride had better reviews. Drove the Kia, felt small and cheap. It felt like it was a minivan pretending not to be a minivan. I don’t know where all the hype came from, I didn’t see it. Especially when I got torque steer during the test drive (not insulting intelligence, but that’s when you give a front wheel drive car the beans and it pulls to the right). You want $50k for a front wheel drive imposter SUV? Nah
We have a Jeep. We like the Jeep. Jeep saved wife’s life when she got t-boned. Let’s go look at a Jeep.
We made it. Enter the 2023 Grand Cherokee L. There was one Jeep with 2nd row bucket seats (wife only wanted the bucket seat). It’s a limited 4x4 in a blackish browish green kinda color. It’s actually beautiful. And inside is even better. 3rd row for permanent exhale for the 6 year old. Heck, I, a 6-00 200lbs man fit comfortably. Baby cam to watch the other terrorist. 10 inch TVs in the back of the front row seats that you can monitor on the whatever inch gigantic screen up front. 4x4 so I still feel like a man, and can actually go places with decent ground clearance. When it’s not in 4wd, it’s rear wheel drive, like god intended. The interior is just beautiful, and it’s comfortable to drive. No, it’s not gonna win any races, if you want speed get the Durango, which isn’t even that fast anyways. Your speed days are done regardless, so who cares. It still gets up and goes better than a 4Runner so good there.
I’ve put a few hundred miles on it, so far none of the day 1/week 1 problems. I love this Jeep, I think they nailed it. I’ll do an update in 6 months or so, or if any problems arise.
Thanks for reading my 1700 word wish.com version of Ted talk.
Used 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L in Knoxville, TN Values
Estimated values
2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L Limited 4dr SUV 4WD (3.6L 6cyl 8A) with no options
| Condition | Trade-In | Private Party | Dealer Retail |
|---|---|---|---|
| Outstanding | $29,186 | $31,618 | $34,363 |
| Clean | $28,820 | $31,188 | $33,861 |
| Average | $28,211 | $30,473 | $33,023 |
| Rough | $27,419 | $29,542 | $31,934 |
The average list price of a used 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L in Knoxville, Tennessee is $33,134. The average mileage on a used Jeep Grand Cherokee L 2023 for sale in Knoxville, Tennessee is 37,208. Based on the average mileage of 37,208 for used 2023 Jeep Grand Cherokee L for sale in Knoxville, TN and using an average vehicle condition rating, which means the vehicle may have a few mechanical and/or cosmetic problems and may require a considerable amount of reconditioning, we appraise the average trade-in value of a used Jeep Grand Cherokee L 2023 in Knoxville, Tennessee to be $28,211.
Filters
Skip to ResultsApplied Filters4Active
Make & Model
Year
New / Used
Price & Payments
Price Rating
Body Type
Trim
Mileage
Accidents & History
Engine & Drivetrain
Exterior Color
Interior Color
Total Seating
Edmunds Review
Features
Options & Packages
MPG
* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.