Skip to main content
Skip to Filters
3,230 listings
  • New Listing
    $10,999
    fair price
    $637 below market
    • 98,836 miles
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Driveway (153 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Wexford, PA / 153 miles away from Columbus, OH

    CarFax No Accidents Reported,CarFax 1-Owner,Bluetooth,Brake Assist,Sunroof / Moonroof,Steel Wheels,Power Door Locks,Brake Assist,Gasoline Fuel,CD Play...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary Unavailable.

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV3CW249624
    Stock: H249624V
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

    • 100,580 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 28 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Cincinnati (110 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Trip Computer
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 110 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (22 City/28 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3ZF4DV1CW157216
    Stock: 2003950144
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-05-2025

    • 150,897 miles
    • Issue reported, 4 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Nice Ride Auto Wholesale (133 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Eastlake, OH / 133 miles away from Columbus, OH

    Fresh Trade-in. Pre-auction Sale! Some issues!This is a Real Deal for the money! 2012 TOYOTA RAV4 LIMITED 3.5L V6 4WD with Sunroof, Heated Leather I...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DK4DV9CW069536
    Stock: 069536
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-16-2025

  • New Listing
    $11,500
    fair price
    $498 above market
    • 124,849 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • DriveEasy (91 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Trip Computer
    Close

    Located in Canton, OH / 91 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV3CW195211
    Stock: 1340
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $8,495
    good price
    $774 below market
    • 145,980 miles
    • 1 accident, 3 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Untra 1 Motors (153 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Pittsburgh, PA / 153 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV9CW252849
    Stock: UMX448
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $17,999
    good price
    $1,770 below market
    • 27,923 miles
    • No accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Walt Sweeney Ford (113 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Cincinnati, OH / 113 miles away from Columbus, OH

    2013 Toyota RAV4 Limited Low Mileage, Premium Features, Great Price!Looking for a reliable, low-mileage SUV? Check out this 2013 Toyota RAV4 Limite...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DFREV3DW038462
    Stock: DW038462
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-16-2025

  • Price Drop
    $9,969
    fair price
    $543 below market
    • 110,482 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Ed Martin Nissan Of Fishers (167 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    • Aux Audio Inputs
    Close

    Located in Fishers, IN / 167 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV7BW132515
    Stock: 9P5037
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-02-2025

  • New Listing
    $9,693
    fair price
    $252 below market
    • 122,047 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Jeff Wyler Toyota of Clarksville (196 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    • Aux Audio Inputs
    Close

    Located in Clarksville, IN / 196 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV7BW176160
    Stock: 31T16303
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-17-2025

  • $12,495
    fair price
    $178 below market
    • 118,154 miles
    • 2 accidents, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • International Auto Outlet (101 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Hamilton, OH / 101 miles away from Columbus, OH

    2013Toyota RAV4 XLE - 4DOOR SUV AWD -- 2.5L I4 -- BACKUP CAMERA -- POWER WINDOWS AND LOCKS -- KEYLESS ENTRY -- POWER DOOR MIRRORS --- CRUISE...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JTMRFREV3D5005717
    Stock: 005717
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $12,498
    fair price
    $635 above market
    • 94,934 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Car 1 (126 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    • Aux Audio Inputs
    Close

    Located in Archbold, OH / 126 miles away from Columbus, OH

    CLEAN CARFAX! TWO OWNER, ALL WHEEL DRIVE, POWER LOCKS/WINDOWS, CRUISE, LOW MILES! This vehicle was purchased new by the original owner on aprx. 12/8/1...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JTMBF4DV0B5039231
    Stock: 10025
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-25-2025

  • Stock photo**
    $13,495
    good price
    $852 below market
    • 120,186 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Randy Wise Buick GMC (195 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Blind Spot Monitorin...
    Close

    Located in Fenton, MI / 195 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DFREV7DW046726
    Stock: B251033A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-23-2025

  • Price Drop
    Stock photo**
    $11,328
    fair price
    $249 below market
    • 122,530 miles
    • 1 accident, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Wabash Valley Chrysler (164 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Leather Seats
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Wabash, IN / 164 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DF4DVXBW089863
    Stock: P1328A
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-04-2025

  • Price Drop
    • 63,974 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Columbus (9 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 9 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BFREV6DW088098
    Stock: 2004040373
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-08-2025

  • New Listing
    • 84,598 miles
    • No accidents, 1 owner, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Columbus (9 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 9 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DFREV2DW051266
    Stock: 2004015528
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-04-2025

    • 140,967 miles
    • Odometer issue reported, 2 owners, corporate fleet vehicle
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Seelye Kia Battle Creek (199 mi away)
    • Five Star Dealer
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Battle Creek, MI / 199 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: No

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Issue reported

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BFREV7DW015242
    Stock: 25B1366Z
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 08-01-2025

  • New Listing
    • 102,675 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Carvana - Cleveland (116 mi away)
    • Home delivery*
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    Close

    Located in Cleveland, OH / 116 miles away from Columbus, OH

    At Carvana, we go miles beyond the extra mile. That's why we provide you with a convenient, fast, and hassle-free car buying experience that puts you ...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JTMBFREV2DD036514
    Stock: 2004054741
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 09-10-2025

  • $8,250
    great price
    $3,174 below market
    • 135,338 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 19 City / 26 Hwy MPG
    • Via Roma Auto Sales (6 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Trip Computer
    Close

    Located in Columbus, OH / 6 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    21 Combined MPG (19 City/26 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: JTMBK4DV1C5108019
    Stock: 108019
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 07-22-2025

  • $12,495
    good price
    $616 below market
    • 110,600 miles
    • No accidents, 2 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • Untra 1 Motors (153 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    Close

    Located in Pittsburgh, PA / 153 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: Yes

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3RFREV6DW019412
    Stock: UMX438
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • $8,995
    great price
    $3,737 below market
    • 123,811 miles
    • 2 accidents, 3 owners, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Elite Cars Ohio (118 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Bluetooth
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • USB Inputs
    • Multi-Zone Climate C...
    Close

    Located in Solon, OH / 118 miles away from Columbus, OH

    If you are interested, please call us directly at (4**) 4**-4*** ask for Arthur ***2012 Toyota RAV4 Limited 4dr SUV 4WD (4x4), only-123Kmi***Clean tit...

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3DF4DV2CW235187
    Stock: 235187
    Certified Pre-Owned: No
    Listed since: 12-27-2024

  • Price Drop
    $8,995
    fair price
    $767 below market
    • 127,349 miles
    • 1 accident, 4 owners, personal use
    • 5 Seats, 21 City / 27 Hwy MPG
    • Panel Craft Auto Sales (166 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Tire Pressure Warnin...
    • Rear Bench Seats
    • Stability Control
    • Aux Audio Inputs
    Close

    Located in Indianapolis, IN / 166 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    24 Combined MPG (21 City/27 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3BF4DV8BW166768
    Stock: 166768
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

  • New Listing
    $10,950
    good price
    $900 below market
    • 161,706 miles
    • 1 accident, 1 owner, personal use only
    • 5 Seats, 22 City / 29 Hwy MPG
    • King Brothers Used Cars (159 mi away)
    • AWD/4WD
    • Back-up camera
    • Bluetooth
    • Navigation
    • Sunroof/Moonroof
    Close

    Located in Winchester, KY / 159 miles away from Columbus, OH

    AutoCheck Vehicle History Summary

    Accident Free Vehicle: No

    Personal Use Only: Yes

    History Provider: AutoCheck

    Title Details: Clean Title

    Salvage Vehicle: No

    Frame Damage: No

    Theft History: No

    Lemon Status: No

    Free History Report: No

    Features and Specs:

    25 Combined MPG (22 City/29 Highway)

    Listing Information:

    VIN: 2T3RFREV3DW117460
    Stock: 117460
    Certified Pre-Owned: No

Showing 1 - 21 out of 3,230 listings

Consumer Reviews for the Toyota RAV4

Read recent reviews for the Toyota RAV4
Overall Consumer Rating
4.2 out of 5 stars58 Reviews
Write a vehicle reviewSee all 58 reviews
  • 5 star
    (43%)
  • 4 star
    (41%)
  • 3 star
    (12%)
  • 2 star
    (3%)
  • 1 star
    (0%)
5 out of 5 stars

Best RAV4 Ever Made - Limited AWD V6

Ashmaster3000, 11/12/2019
2012 Toyota RAV4 Limited 4dr SUV 4WD (3.5L 6cyl 5A)
I have a 2012 Limited V6 4WD. If you have a chance to get one of these you should do it! In my opinion it's the best looking Rav4 that's been made. I could have spent the same amount on a much newer SUV with similar miles but I chose the 2012 for a few reasons. 1) the 269hp V6. This is the same V6 from the Avalon and Lexus RX350. It was the fastest car in Toyota's line-up for a time. … It's a proven engine with power to spare and they stopped offering it in '13. Any small SUVs with similar power have turbo 4 cylinders that take premium gas... plus turbos break and require more maintenance. It does fine on regular oil every 5000 miles - not expensive synthetic. 2) 4WD. This was the last generation with a 4WD lock button so you can lock the differential at 50/50 front/rear power under 25mph (technically 55/45). That's why these models say 4WD and not AWD. It still has an AWD system that's always active - in most cases you won't need it BUT having the ability to lock the diff is hugely important for deep snow/mud and getting unstuck- or getting through the worst conditions. Without the lockable diff Toyota's AWD system doesn't really keep up with a Subaru or other true 4x4s. 3) Full-size spare tire. Yes, that means the tailgate swings instead of lifts... but driving slow on a tiny spare sucks! It's already saved the day twice. 4) OPTIONS! because this generation of RAV4 is getting older I was able to find one with low miles and all the options I wanted. I have a backup camera, navigation, wireless bluetooth audio/calling, leather heated seats, dual zone climate control, sunroof... great value for the money. Finally, it's a notoriously reliable car even by Toyota standards... every review you will find from Consumer Reports to KBB to Edmunds rates it super high. I've yet to have any problems and that's why you see a TON of this generation on the road. This is my second Rav4 after putting 220k on my 2000.... I'm looking forward to every mile with this one. CONS The factory speakers are terrible (unless it has the JBL system). The interior door seals can be squeaky so you need to keep them clean/lubed. The handling and steering is not very sporty compared to the sport version, subaru, or mazda. Finally, Toyota's Entune system that connects to your phone for apps doesn't work for the newest phones and they don't keep it updated... Bluetooth audio and calling works great though. I average 21 mpg which isn't the best but could be worse considering it has 269hp. Toyota interiors always lag behind in my opinion and while it's comfortable, logically done, and perfectly adequate - it still feels a bit outdated compared to other brands.
Report abuse
Filters
Skip to Results

Applied Filters5Active

Select Buying Experience

Location

Search radius200 miles
Search radius

Make & Model

Year

New / Used

Price & Payments

Price Rating

Body Type

Trim

Mileage

Accidents & History

Engine & Drivetrain

Exterior Color

Interior Color

Total Seating

Edmunds Review

Features

Options & Packages

MPG

Listing Details

* Delivery of any kind does not apply to Alaska and Hawaii. Contact the dealer for delivery details, restrictions and costs.